| Glossary Term | Definition |
| Napoleon Bonaparte | Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte) (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general during the French Revolution, the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from 11 November 1799 to 18 May 1804, Emperor of the Fr |
| Confederation of the Rhine | lasted from 1806 to 1813 and was formed initially from 16 German states by Napoleon after he defeated Habsburg's Francis II and Russia's Alexander I in the Battle of Austerlitz. |
| The Continental System | was a foreign-policy cornerstone of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the Napoleonic Wars. By 1804, France was the dominant military force in continental Europe. |
| Carbonari | were groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. Their goals were patriotic and liberal and they played an important role in the Risorgimento and the early years of Italian nationalism |
| Invasion of Russia, 1812 | led by Napoleon I of France in 1812 was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. The campaign reduced the French and allied invasion forces to less than two percent of their initial strength. |
| Battle of Borodino | It was fought by the French Grande Armée under Napoleon I of France and the Imperial Russian army of Alexander I near the village of Borodino The clash was a pivotal point in the campaign as it was the last offensive battle fought by Napoleon in Russia |
| Battle of Nations | was the most decisive defeat suffered by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Napoleonic Wars. It is considered the largest conflict in Europe before World War I, with over 500,000 troops involved. |
| Island of Elba | Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, French emperor Napoleon I was exiled to (blank) after his forced abdication in 1814. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men and was made the Emperor of the island. |
| Joseph M.W. Turner | was an English Romantic landscape painter and watercolourist, whose style can be said to have laid the foundation for Impressionism. |
| Eugene Delacroix | (April 26, 1798 – August 13, 1863) was the most important of the French Romantic painters. Delacroix's use of expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical effects of color profoundly shaped the work of the Impress |
| Ludwig van Beethoven | (baptized December 17, 1770[1] – March 26, 1827) was a German composer. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest composers in the history of music, and was the predominant figure in the transitional period between the Classica |
| Sir Walter Scott | was a prolific Scottish historical novelist and poet popular throughout Europe during his time. In some ways Scott was the first author to have a truly international career in his lifetime |
| Ferdinand VII | (October 14, 1784 -inand VI September 29, 1833) was King of Spain from 1813 to 1833. was arrested for his complicity in the conspiracy of the Escorial in which liberal reformers aimed at securing the help of the emperor Napoleon. |
| Spanish revolt , 1820 | of 1820-1823 was fought in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. It was a conflict between royalists and liberals with France intervening on the side of the royalists. |
| Decembrist Revolt, 1825 | was attempted in Imperial Russia by army officers who led about 3,000 Russian soldiers on December 14 (December 26 New Style), 1825. Because these events occurred in December, the rebels were called the Dec |
| Nicholas I | was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855. in 1825, when Alexander I suddenly died, Nicholas was caught in between swearing allegiance to his second elfish brother Constantine Pavlovich and accepting the throne for himself. During the confusion where |
| Treaty of Adrianople | (also called the Treaty of Edirne) concluded the Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829 between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. It was signed on September 14, 1829 in Adrianople by Russia's Count Aleksey Orlov and by Turkey's Abdul Kad |
| Simon Bolivar | Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (born July 24, 1783 in Caracas, Venezuela; died December 17, 1830, in Santa Marta, Colombia) was a leader of several independence movements throughout South America, collectively known as |
| Monroe Doctrine | is a U.S. doctrine which, on December 2, 1823, proclaimed that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere with the affairs of the nations of the Americas. United States planned to stay neutral in wars between European powers and its colonies |
| French Revolution, 1830 | was a vital period in the history of France and Europe as a whole. During this time, democracy replaced the absolute monarchy in France, and the country's Roman Catholic Church was forced to undergo a radical restructurin |
| Charles X | of France and Navarre (October 9, 1757 – November 6, 1836) was King of France from 1824 to 1830 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated rather than become a constitutional monarch. He was the last king of the senior Bourbon line t |
| Louis-Philippe | King of the French (October 6, 1773 – August 26, 1850) reigned as King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the July Monarchy. He was, to date, the last king ever to rule France. |
| Revolt in Belgium, 1830 | Influenced by the Enlightenment, Habsburg Emperor Joseph II pushed through a series of large-scale reforms in the Austrian Netherlands in the 1780s, designed to radically modernize and centralize the political, judicial and administrative system. The old |
| George IV | was king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and Hanover from 29 January 1820 until his death. For most of George's regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government |
| Sir Robert Peel | was the Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from December 10, 1834 to April 8, 1835, concept of the police force while Home Secretary, oversaw the formation of the Conservative Party out of the shattered Tory Party, and repealed the Corn Law |
| Great Reform Bill, 1832 | was an Act of Parliament that introduced wide-ranging changes to the electoral system of the United Kingdom. According to its preamble, the act was designed to "take effectu |
| Whigs | The term was coined when an insurgency of the Scottish Presbyterians known as Covenanters marched from the south west of Scotland on Edinburgh in 1648, with the country folk using the word "whiggam" to urge on their horses. As a result, the episode b |
| Ideology | An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. The word ideology was coined by Count Antoine Destutt de Tracy in the late 18th century to define a "science of ideas." |
| Liberalism | is an ideology, philosophical view, and political tradition which holds that liberty is the primary political value.[1] Liberalism has its roots in the Western Age of Enlightenment. Broadly speaking, liberalism emphasizes individual rights. It |
| Nationalism | is an ideology [1] that holds that a nation is the fundamental unit for human social life, and takes precedence over any other social and political principles. Nationalism typically makes certain political claims based upon this belief: above |
| Restoration | Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814, the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. The ensuing period is called the Restauration, following French usage, and is characterized by a sharp conservative reaction and the re-es |
| Joseph Fouche | was a French statesman and Minister of Police under Napoleon Bonaparte. |
| Neoclassical | Among very broad movement of new age music, (blank) disctintion strongly influenced and sometimes even based on the early, baroque or classical music especially in terms of melody and composition. In either case a performer can offer a modern arrang |
| Congress of Vienna | The Congress was concerned with determining the entire shape of Europe after the Napoleonic wars, with the exception of the terms of peace with France, which had already been decided by the Treaty of Paris, signed a few months earlier, on May 30, 1814. |
| Klemens von Metternich | was an Austrian politician and statesman and perhaps the most important diplomat of his era. He was a major figure on the negotiations leading to the Congress of Vienna and is considered both a paradigm of foreign policy management and a major figure on |
| Robert Castlereagh | , 2nd Marquess of Londonderry, KG, GCH, PC (18 June 1769 – 12 August 1822), known until 1821 by his courtesy title of Viscount Castlereagh, was an Anglo-Irish politician born in Dublin who represented the United Kingdom at the Congress of Vienna |
| Charles Maurice de Talleyrand | Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, Prince de Benevente (February 2, 1754 – May 17, 1838) was a French diplomat. He worked successfully from the regime of Louis XVI, through the French Revolution and then under Napoleon I, Louis XVIII and Louis-Philip |
| Conservatism | is a political philosophy that favors traditional values. |
| Edmund Burke | was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist, and philosopher, who served for many years in the British House of Commons as a member of the Whig party. He is chiefly remembered for his support of the American colonies in the struggle |
| Methodists | is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity. It originated in 18th century Britain, and through vigorous missionary activity, spread throughout the British Empire, the United States, and |
| Religious revivalism | The 18th century Age of Enlightenment had a chilling effect on spiritual movements, but this was countered by the Methodist revival of John Wesley and Charles Wesley and George Whitefield in Britain and the Great Awakening in America prior to the Revoluti |
| Industrial Revolution | The Industrial Revolution was the major shift of technological, socioeconomic, and cultural conditions in the late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain and spread throughout the world. During that time, an economy based on manual labour was r |
| Peterloo | was the result of a cavalry charge into the crowd at a public meeting at St Peter's Fields, Manchester, England |
| Six Acts | Following the Peterloo massacre of August 16, 1819, the UK government acted to prevent any future disturbances by the introduction of new legislation, the so-called Six Acts which labelled any meeting for radical reform as "an overt act of treasonable con |
| Luddites | he Luddites were a social movement of English textile workers in the early 1800s who protested — often by destroying textile machines — against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution, which they felt threatened their jobs. The movement, which b |
| John Locke | John Locke (August 29, 1632 – October 28, 1704) was an influential English philosopher. In epistemology, Locke has often been classified as a British Empiricist, along with David Hume and George Berkeley. He is equally important as a social contract theor |
| Jeremy Bentham | was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. He argued in favour of individual and economic freedom, including the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, animal rights, the end of slavery, the |
| Socialists | Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control.[1] This control may be either direct—exercised through popular coll |
| Utopian socialists | Utopian socialists never actually used this name to describe themselves; the term "utopian socialism" was introduced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (in The Communist Manifesto) and used by later socialist thinkers to describe early socialist or quasi-s |
| Robert Owen | was a Welsh socialist and social reformer. He is considered the father of the cooperative movement. |
| Claude Henre de Saint-Simon | French Utopian socialist who took part in War of Independence of the United States; opposed Deism and promoted the study of Nature. Saint-Simon was a determinist, holding that everything in Nature and Society was governed by Laws, knowledge of which would |
| Charles Fourier | François Marie Charles Fourier (April 7, 1772 - October 10, 1837) was a French utopian socialist and philosopher. Fourier coined the word féminisme in 1837; as early as 1808, he had argued that the extension of women's rights was the general principle of |
| Romanticism | Romanticism is an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in late 18th century Western Europe. In part a revolt against aristocratic, social, and political norms of the Enlightenment period and a reaction against the rationalization of nature, |
| Lord Byron | was a British poet and a leading figure in Romanticism. Among Lord Byron's best-known works are the narrative poems Childe Harold's Pilgrimage and Don Juan. The latter remained incomplete on his death. He was regarded as one of the greatest European poets |
| Greek Independence | was a successful war waged by the Greeks to win independence for Greece from the Ottoman Empire. Independence was finally granted by the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832 when Greece (Hellas) was recognized as a free country. The Greeks were the first |
| Alexander Ypsilanti | was a Phanariot Greek military commander and national hero. He bears the same name as, and should not be confused with, his grandfather, Prince of Wallachia and Moldavia at the end of the 18th century. |
| William Wordsworth | was a major English romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their 1798 joint publication, Lyrical Ballads. Wordsworth's masterpiece is generally considered to be The Prelude, an autobiogra |
| Mary Shelley | was an English romantic/gothic novelist, the author of Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus. She was married to the notable Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. |
| Johann Wolfgang von Goethe | Johann Wolfgang Goethe (28 August, 1749 – 22 March, 1832) Johann Wolfgang Goethe (helpinfo), IPA: [gø?t?], later von Goethe, (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German polymath: he was a poet, novelist, dramatist, humanist, scientist, theorist, painte |
| Faust | Goethe was one of the key figures of German literature and the movement of Weimar Classicism in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; this movement coincides with Enlightenment, Sentimentality ("Empfindsamkeit"), Sturm und Drang, and Romanticism. The au |
| Caspar David Friedrich | was a 19th century German romantic painter, considered by many critics to be one of the finest representatives of the movement. |
| Burschenschaften | German Burschenschaften are a special type of Studentenverbindungen (student fraternities); they were founded in the 19th century as associations of university students inspired by liberal and patriotic ideas. The Burschenschaften served numerous social f |
| “new paternalism” | Neo-prohibitionism is the belief that the influence of alcohol on modern society should be reduced, either by legislation restricting the sale and use of alcohol, or by changes to social norms. Because prohibition in the United States and elsewhere has be |
| Utilitarianism | is the ethical doctrine that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall utility. It is thus a form of consequentialism. Utility--the good to be maximized-- has been defined by various thinkers as happiness, pleasure, |
| Duke of Wellington | The Dukedom of Wellington, derived from Wellington in Somerset, is a hereditary title and the senior Dukedom in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The first holder of the title was Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769–1852), the noted Irish-born |
| Josephine | Joséphine de Beauharnais (June 23, 1763 – May 29, 1814) wife of Napoléon Bonaparte became Empress of the French. Through her daughter, Hortense, she was the maternal grandmother of Napoleon III. |
| Legion of Honour | The Légion d'honneur (officially Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur) [1] is a French order established by Napoléon Bonaparte, First Consul of the First Republic, on May 19, 1802. It is the premier order of France, and its award is therefore considered |
| Frederick William III | The son of King Frederick William II of Prussia, Frederick William was born in Potsdam and became Crown Prince in 1786, when his father ascended the throne. |
| George Stephenson | George Stephenson (9 June 1781 – 12 August 1848) was an English mechanical engineer who designed the famous and historically important steam locomotive named Rocket and is known as the "Father of Railways". The Victorians considered him a great example of |
| Otto I | Otto I the Great (November 23, 912 – May 7, 973), son of Henry I the Fowler, king of the Germans, and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke of the Saxons, King of the Germans and arguably the first Holy Roman Emperor[1] - while Charlemagne had been crowned empe |
| Lycees | the lycées provide a three-year course of further secondary education for children between the ages of 15 and 18. Pupils are prepared for the baccalauréat. The baccalauréat can lead to higher education studies or directly to professional life. |
| Louis XVIII | Louis XVIII (November 17, 1755 - September 16, 1824) was King of France and Navarre from 1814 (although he dated his reign from 1795) until his death in 1824, with a brief break in 1815 due to Napoleon's return in the Hundred Days. |
| Hundred Days | or the Waterloo Campaign commonly refers to the period between 20 March 1815, the date on which Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Paris after his return from Elba, and 8 July 1815, the date of the restoration of King Louis |
| Battle of Waterloo | The Battle of Waterloo, fought on June 18, 1815, was Napoleon Bonaparte's last battle. After his exile to Elba, he had reinstalled himself on the throne of France for a Hundred Days. During this time, the forces of the rest of Europe, the United Kingdom, |
| St. Helena | the place of exile of Napoleon Bonaparte between 1815 and his death in 1821. Longwood House, where Napoleon stayed, and Sane Valley, where he was buried, are owned by the French government, since the British government gave them to the French in 1858. |
