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Skeleton
Organisation of the Body
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Divisions of the skeleton | Axial skeleton consists of bones of the head(cranium/skull), neck(hyoid bone/cervical vertebrae) and trunk(ribs, sternum, vertebrae and sacrum) Appendicular skeleton consists of bones of the limbs, including those forming the pectoral and pelvic girdles |
| Cartilage in bone | Skeleton formed of cartilage and bones. Cartilage is a resilient semirigid form of connective tissue allowing for flexibility in the skeleton. Proportions change during growth. Bones of a newborn are mostly cartilage (replaced as we age). |
| How does cartilage receive nutrients to grow | Blood vessels do not enter cartilage, so its cells obtain oxygen and nutrients by diffusion. Bone however has blood vessels |
| How does bone develop | Ossification - mesenchyme cells in the embryo lay down cartilage cells (chondrocytes). This acts as a template for bone. The bone replaces the cartilage, although some cartilage will remain until birth |
| Primary ossification | Ossification which occurs before birth. Not all cartilage will be replaced e.g. in the neck |
| How ossification occurs part 1 (Primary) | Cartilage template undergoes hypertrophy. Calcification of matrix in the primary ossification centre to form periosteal collar of bone. Vascular osteogenic buds invade the primary centre. Bone laid down on calcified cartilage ruminants. |
| How ossification occurs part 2 (secondary) | Secondary ossification centre appears and is vascularised. Continued growth of cartilage of epiphysial plate and proliferation of bone marrow. Cessation of cartilage growth and complete ossification of epiphysial plate (fusion of epiphysis) |
| Examples of ages of ossification | Upper humerus - multiple ossification centres form by 2 years but do not fuse until 18-21 years Patella - ossification centres form at 3-5 years and fuse at 16-19 years Primary and secondary fusion occurs 1-2 years earlier in girls. |
| What can the state of fusion of bone tell us about a patient | Age |
| Parts of the long bone | Epiphysis - proximal and distal end (expanded end). Contains lightweight spongy bone in a thin cortical layer Diaphysis - middle part of a bone (shaft). Contains the medullary cavity with bone marrow. Thick cortical layer to bear more weight. |
| Where are Epiphysis and Diaphysis ossified from | Epiphysis - secondary centre Diaphysis - primary centre |
| Types of bone | Compact Spongy (Trabecular) Architecture and proportion of there vary according to function Compact is greatest near the middle of the shaft - provides strength for weight bearing. Bones have some elasticity and great rigidity |
| What is the medullary cavity | Present in the shaft of bone and contains bone marrow |
| Classification of bone | 5 main types - long - short - flat - irregular - sesamoid |
| Long bones | Cylinder like shape longer than it is wide For movement and support e.g. femur, tibia, fibular, metatarsals, humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpals, phalanges |
| Short bones | Cube like shape equal in length, width and thickness Provide stability, support while allowing some motion Carpals (wrist), tarsals (foot) |
| Flat bones | Thin and curved Points of attachment for muscle, protectors of internal organs Sternum, ribs, scapulae, cranial bones |
| Irregular bones | Complex shape Protect internal organs, movement and support Vertebrae, facial bones |
| Sesamoid bones | Small and round, embedded in tendons Protects tendons from excessive forces, allows effective muscle action Patallae |
| Bone impressions | Appear wherever tendons, ligaments, fascias and muscles are attached.At some areas large muscle attachments form elevation e.g. ridges, crests and tubercles for support of movement of the joint.Other formations occur in relation to the passage of a tendon |
| Capitulum | small, round articular head e.g. capitulum of the humerus |
| Condyle | Rounded, knuckle like articular area often occurring in pairs e.g. the lateral and medial femoral condyles |
| Crest | Ridge of bone e.g. the iliac crest |
| Epicondyle | Eminence superior or adjacent to a condyle e.g. lateral epicondyle of the humerus |
| Foramen | Passage through a bone e.g. obturator foramen |
| Fossa | Hollow or depressed area e.g. infraspinous fossa of the scapula |
| Groove | Elongated depression or furrow e.g radial groove of the humerus |
| Head (L. caput) | Large, round articular head e.g. head of the humerus |
| Line | linear elevation sometimes called a ridge e.g. soleal line of the tibia |
| Malleolus | Rounded process e.g. lateral malleolus of the fibula |
| Neck | Relatively narrow portion proximal to the head |
| Notch | Indentation at the edge of a bone e.g. greater sciatic notch |
| Process | An extension or projection serving a particular purpose, having a characteristic shape or extending in a particular direction e.g. articular process, spinous process or transverse process of a vertebra |
| Shaft | The diaphysis or bond of a long bone |
| Spine | Thorn like process e.g the spine of the scapula |
| Trochanter | Large blunt elevation e.g. greater trochanter of the femur |
| Trochlea | Spool like articular process or a process that acts as a pully e.g. trochlea of the humerus |
| Tubercle | Small raised eminence e.g. greater tubercle of the humerus |
| Tuberosity | Large rounded elevation e.g. ischial tuberosity |
| Functional adaptations to mechanical load | Bone formation regeneration and degeneration processes are stimulated by mechanical strain as a result of applied mechanical stress in the form of muscular contraction, impact loading and gravity. Bones are responsive to local stresses and strains |
| What are stress and strain | Bone receives stress (external force) which produces strain (structural deformation) The amount of mechanical stress is inversely proportional to the size of the area over which the force is spread |
| Compressive and tensile lines | According to Wolffs law: the thickness and number of trabeculae (lines on the bone) must correspond to the quantitative distribution of mechanical stresses, and the trabeculae must be stressed axially in compression or tension Greater trabeculae = load. |
| Effect of modern lifestyle on trabeculae | In hunter gathers trabeculae patterns were much darker, demonstrating their more active lifestyle. Modern day sedentary lifestyle lead to loss of these trabeculae and lower quantity and quality of bones, muscle weakness and increased risk of fracture |
| Bone remodelling in microgravity | Can loose up to 2% of bone density per month. Less gravitational force so less mechanical load. Trabeculae are lost and bone strength decreases Leads to increased risk of fracture |
| Names of Carpal bones in the hand | Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform, Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate and Hamate |
| What does the clavicle do | Main weight transmitting bone to the exoskeleton |
| Weight transmission from upper bones to exoskeleton | Through scaphoid bones to the radial bone. From the radius to the ulna through the interosseus membrane. Ulna to humerus through elbow joint The transmitted to the scapular then to coracoid where a ligament connects to the clavicle |
| 3 bones in the pelvis | Ilium Pelvis Ischium All connected in acetabulum (a deep socket where head of the femur sits) |
| How many tarsal bones are present in the foot | Seven Calcaneum is strongest and transfers weight to the ground Talus Navicular Cuneiforms (median, intermediate and lateral) Cuboid Metatarsals Phalanges (3 in all but big toe and thumb) |
| How is weight transferred from the body to the ground | Weight is transmitted centrally through the vertebral column. Directed laterally by the sacrum and ilia. Transferred to head of the femur, to shaft of the femur to tibia then talus. Then transferred to heel bone and phalanges. Fibula is not involved |
| Differences between shoulder and pelvic girdle | Head of humerus sits on shallow part of the Glenoid fossa whereas head of femur sits deep in the acetabulum Neck of humerus is very short whilst neck of femur is longer. Tubercle is shorter than trochanter. |
| Differences in role of upper and lower limb | Upper limb - mobility Lower limb - locomotion and stability (more muscle load) |
| Differences in humerus and femur | Shaft of humerus is smooth with rough regions. Femur has thick layer of Linea aspera, many muscles are attached. Lower part condyles of humerus has different parts (radius and ulna can easily lodge). Femur has large condyle surface (weight transmission) |
| Comparing Ulna and Radium with tibia and fibula | Function of flexion and extension but very different movements. Lower radius/ulna is styloid process (very short) but is longer in tibia and fibula (malleolus) |
| Comparing hands to feet | 8 carpals in hands and 7 tarsals in feet. Metacarpals and metatarsals share characteristics Phalanges are longer in hands for skilful movement and broader in feet to transmit weight. |
| Thumb | Performs many functions: Extension, abduction, flexion, adduction Allowed by the carpal metacarpal joint |
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