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| permafrost | soil that is permanently frozen |
| city-states | a city that is also an independent nation; many existed in ancient Greece. |
| policies | one of the methods and plans a government uses to do its work. |
| feudalism | a kind of society in which people worked and sometimes rough for a local lord in return for protection and the use of land. |
| renaissance | a period of European history that include a rebirth of interest in learning and art, peaking in the 1500s. |
| monarchy | the ruler of a kingdom of empire such as a king or queen. |
| middle classes | a group that included traders, merchants, and others who were economically between the poor and the very rich. |
| revolution | a complete change in government often achieved through violent means. |
| colony | a territory ruled by another nation. |
| industrial revolution | a period in eropean history during the early 1800s when products once made by hand in homes beganto be made by machines in factories. |
| imperialism | the control by one country of the political and economic life of another country or region. |
| nationalism | pride in one's country; an elevation of one's own nation above others |
| alliances | a mutual agreement between countries to protect and defend each other |
| westernization | the adoption of western culture, as is taking place i9n Russia and many eastern European countries. |
| czar | title or Russian emperors before the formation of the soviet union. |
| cold war | a time of tension between the united states and the former soviet union without actual war; it lasted from about 1945 to 1991. |
| civil war | a war between groups within a country. |
| immigrants | a person who moves from one country to another. |
| parliament | a group of elected officials in great Britain who help govern by deciding about takes and other laws. |
| representatives | a person who represents, or stands for, a group of people, usually in government. |
| reunification | the process of becoming unified again. |
| communism | a theory of government in which property such as farms and factories is owned by the government for the benefit of all citzens; a political system in which the central government controls all aspects of citzens' lives. |
| prairies | the central and southern parts of the north eropean plain were once covered by grasslands, called prairies. |
| tundra | a treeless plain in artic areas with permanently frozen ground; during the brief season when the topsoil thaws, grasses and mosses grow. |
