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bio 1 exam 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| NPP: limiting factors | Productivity of terrestrial ecosystems limited by a combination of temperature and availability of water and sunlight |
| NPP: limiting factors | Productivity of marine ecosystems limited by availability of nutrients |
| Trophic levels | identify steps in energy transfer; organisms that obtain their energy from same type of source occupy same trophic level |
| Food chain | connects trophic levels in a particular ecosystem |
| Grazing food chain: | network of herbivores and secondary consumers (eat herbivores) |
| Decomposer food chain: | made up of species that eat dead remains of organisms |
| food webs | Food chains are usually embedded in more complex food webs |
| Food webs: | more-complete description of trophic relationships among organisms in an ecosystem |
| Biogeochemical cycle: | path that an element takes as it moves from abiotic systems through organisms and back again |
| Three fundamental aspects on working of biogeochemical cycles: | Nature and size of reservoirs How fast an element move between reservoirs and what factors influence these rates? Interactions between biogeochemical cycles |
| Human effect on water cycle: | One of the most direct effect is in groundwater storage. Water table, upper limit of saturated soil, is dropping on every continent |
| Carbon dioxide, greenhouse gas | traps heat radiated from Earth and keeps it from being lost to space |
| Atmospheric emissions of pollutants, dust and greenhouse gases | wide ranging environmental problems |
| Two major activities that increase CO2 | – burning of fossil fuels – deforestation |
| Global warming: | documented increase in Earth's surface temperature, averaged over the globe |
| Microevolution: | adaptations that evolve within a population, confined to one gene pool |
| Macroevolution: | evolutionary change above species level |
| Species: | evolutionarily independent population or group of populations |
| Biologists commonly use: three approaches to identify species: | – biological species concept – morphospecies concept – phylogenetic species concept |
| Postzygotic isolation: | when individuals from different populations do mate, but hybrid offspring with low fitness and do not survive or produce offspring |
| Dispersal: | population moves to population moves to new ne habitat habitat,colonizes it and forms new population |
| Vicariance: | physical barrier splits widespread population into subgroups, physically isolated from each other |
| Speciation that begins with physical isolation via either dispersal or vicariance: | allopatric speciation |
| Populations or species live in same geographic region, diverge: | sympatry |
| Sometimes, natural selection can overcome gene flow and cause | sympatric speciation |
| Speciation by polyploidization: | determined by chromosome-level mutations and occurs in sympatry. |
| Branches represent populations through time. Adjacent branches: | sister taxa |
| Taxon: | any named group of organisms |
| Nodes: | where ancestral group split into two or more descendant groups |
| Polytomy: | node where more than two descendant groups branch off branch off |
| Location of this node determined using out-group, | a taxonomic group that diverged before rest of taxa in focus |
| The cladistic approach to inferring trees focuses on synapomorphies, | the shared derived characters of the species under study |
| a synapomorphy is | a trait that certain groups of organisms have that exists in no groups of organisms have that exists in no others |
| Homoplasy | occurs when traits are similar for reasons other than common ancestry. like:similar traits of dolphins and extinct marine reptiles: ichthyosaurs |
| Homology | occurs when traits are similar due to shared ancestry,like:Hox genes |
| If similar traits found in distantly related lineages due to common ancestry, | then similar traits should be found in many intervening lineages on ToL |
| Convergent evolution | occurs when natural selection favors similar solutions to problems posed by similar way of life |
| Convergent evolution: | common cause of homoplasy |
| Parsimony: | a principle of logic stating that most likely explanation or pattern is the one that implies least amount of change |
| Convergent evolution and other causes of homoplasy should be rare compared with similarity due to shared descent so Homology and Homoplasy be rare compared with similarity due to shared descent, | so the tree that implies the fewest overall evolutionary changes should be the one that most accurately reflects what happened during evolution |
| Whales and Hippos/Monophyletic Group: Recent data on gene sequences (short interspersed nuclear elements - SINEs) show: | whales and hippos share several SINE genes, absent in other artiodactyl groups |
| Whales and Hippos/Monophyletic Group: SINEs | shared derived traits (synapomorphies) and support whales and hippos are closely related |
| Cell theory and theory of evolution by natural selection imply: | all species come from preexisting species, all species trace their ancestry to single common ancestor |
| tree of life: | family tree of organisms that describes genealogical relationships among species with a single ancestral species at its base |
| Phylogeny: | genealogical relationships among all organisms |
| Phylogenetic tree | reflects relationships between species |
| Phylogenetic tree | shows ancestor-descendant relationship among populations or species |
| An ancestor and all its descendants form monophyletic group | (also called a clade or lineage) |
| four components of ecosystem | abotic, primary producers, consumer, decomposers |
| energy flow through an ecosystem | energy flows through abiotic, to primary producers, to consumer, to decomposers |
| trophic structure | energy flow from primary producers to primary consumers, to secondary consumers, to tertiary consumers. with each transfer energy decrease by 10 to 20% |
| food web | visual representation of differential trophic levels of an ecosystem |
| NPP | the amount of energy available for the consumer. |
| limiting factor of NPP in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem | detradis: the decomposed matter, moisture in the soil, precipitation, and temperature |
| energy transfer across trophic levels within HB forest data | in trophic levels energy decrease about 80 to 90% with each trophic level. |
| Hubbard Brook Forest: | model ecosystem for studying energy and nutrient flow |
| energy flow in HB forest 1 | energy from energy source, some energy is captured by photosynthesis by the the primary producer. |
| energy flow in HB forest 2 | (the net primary production)or amount of energy used after photo for growth. more energy is lost as maintenance activities or heat |
| energy flow in HB forest 3 | energy from primary producers that is stored in the NPP, some enters the consumer food web. which the majority enters decomposer food web as dead material. |
| NPP limiting factors in terrestrial ecosystems | limited by a combination of temperature and availability of water and sunlight |
| NPP limiting factors in marine ecosystems | limited by availability of nutrients |
| NPP | represents amount of energy available to consumers organisms that eat other organisms |
| Decomposers, (detritivores) | feed on detritus, waste products or dead remains of other organisms |
| Biogeochemical cycle: | path that an element takes as it moves from abiotic systems through organisms and back again |
| Human effect on water cycle: | One of the most direct effect is in groundwater storage. Water table, upper limit of saturated soil, is dropping on every continent |
| Human effect on carbon cycle: | Increased amounts of greenhouse gases can warm Earth’s climate by increasing atmosphere’s heat-trapping potential |
| Humans effects in atmospheric CO2 | Increases in CO2 emissions due to fossil-fuel use. Intensive agriculture, deforestation and burning of fossil fuels adds large amounts of carbon dioxide to atmosphere |
| Natural greenhouse effect: vital to life on Earth | Some sun light absorbed by greenhouse gases in atmosphere,Without greenhouse effect, average temperature: –18°C (32 degrees colder); too cold for most forms of life. |
| Carbon dioxide, greenhouse gas — | traps heat radiated from Earth and keeps it from being lost to space |
| what are the three conceptual definition of species | biological species concept– morphospecies concept– phylogenetic species concept |
| Biological species concept: | populations evolutionarily independent, if reproductively isolated from each other, i.e., do not interbreed.Therefore, no gene flow between these populations |
| Morphospecies Concept | Biologists identify evolutionarily independent lineages by differences in size, shape, other.Based on:features most likely to arise if populations independent and isolated from gene flow |
| Phylogenetic Species Concept | ancestral population plus all of its descendants,homologous traits inherited from a common ancestor that are unique to certain populations or lineages |
| Mechanisms stopping gene flow between populations: | prezygotic or postzygotic |
| biological species concept | reproductive isolation between population (can't produce viable offsprings). difficault of assess if population dont overlap geographically |
| morphospecies species concept | morphologically distinct population, misses cryptic species. disagreement of what or how much of morphological distinction indicates speciation. |
| phylogenetic species concept | smallest monophyletic group on phylogentic tree. base on testable criteria. |
| prezygotic isolation: temporal | breed at different times |
| prezygotic isolation:habitat | breed in different habitats |
| prezygotic isolation:behavior | different courtships behavior |
| prezygotic isolation:gametic barrier | egg and sperm is incompatible |
| prezygotic isolation:mechanical | male and female reproductive structures are incompatible |
| postzygotic isolation: hybrid viability | offsprings die as embryos |
| postzygotic isolation:hybrid sterility | offsprings grow up, but are sterile |
| Speciation that begins with physical isolation from each other either dispersal or vicariance: | allopatric speciation |
| dispersal | two populations isolated from one another due to a physical separation or dispersal, cause divergence amongst the populations due to drift and selection |
| vicariance | a chance event that changes the landscape, creates separation within specie population. causing an divergence due to drift and selection. |
| natural selection | may cause divergence if newly colonized environment different from original habitat |
| Populations or species live in same geographic region, diverge, Though not physically isolated, populations may be isolated by preferences for different habitats | sympatry and sympatric speciation |
| Mutations with doubling of chromosome number: | autopolyploid individuals |
| Allopolyploid individuals: | result when parents of different species produce an offspring in which chromosome number doubles |
| Polyploid populations: | genetically isolated from wild-type populations, because tetraploid individuals can breed with other tetraploids but not with diploids |
| Autopolyploidy: Tetraploid (4n) maidenhair ferns: | offspring of a parent that produced diploid gametes and then self fertilized. |
| autopolyploidy | individuals are produced when a mutation result in a double of chromosomes number and the chromosomes all come from the same species |
| allopolyploid | individuals are created when parents that belong to different species mate and produces an offspring where chromosome number double. allopolyploid individuals have chromosome sets from different species. |
| sympatric speciation | sympatric population are not physically isolated, they may be isolated by performance for different habitats |
| a physical barrier can split a widespread population into two or more subgroups that are physically isolated from each other | vicariance |
| allopatric speciation | different home land, speciation that begins with physical isolation via either dispersal or vicariance |
| phylogenetic species concept | is based on reconstruction the evolutionary history of population |
| morphospecies concept | is that distinguishing features are most likely to arise if population are independent and isolated from gene flow |
| biological species concept | identification by reproductive isolation. problem because no gene flow occurs between population that are reproductively isolated from each other |
| the amount of nitrogen fixation from human sources is now approximately equal | to the amount of nitrogen fixation from natural sources |
| Phylogenetic tree | reflects relationships between species |
| cladistic approach | to inferring tree on the realization that relationships among species can be reconstructed by identifying shared derived characters in the species being studied |
| synapomorphies | are characteristics that are shared because they are derived from traits that existed in their common ancestor |
| Convergent evolution and other causes of homoplasy should be rare compared with similarity due to shared descent so be rare compared with similarity due to shared descent, | the tree that implies the fewest overall evolutionary changes should be the one that most accurately reflects what happened during evolution |
| Recent data on gene sequences (short interspersed nuclear elements - SINEs) show: | whales and hippos share several SINE genes, absent in other artiodactyl groups |
| SINEs | shared derived traits (synapomorphies) and support whales and hippos are closely related |
| What is the leading hypothesis as to why terrestrial productivity is higher in equatorial climates? | The hypothesis is most likely a combination of the other answers. |
| Some beetles and flies have antler-like structures on their heads, much like male deer do. The existence of antlers in beetle, fly, and deer species with strong male-male competition is an example of | analogy |
| Which of the following would be useful in creating a phylogenetic tree of a taxon? | all of the above |
| Considering the global carbon cycle, where are humans having a large impact? | in both terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere |
| If a plant species with 2n = 14 forms an allopolyploid with a plant species with 2n = 18, what would be the likely diploid (2n) number of the allopolyploid? | 32 |
| Most causes of speciation are relatively slow, in that they may take many generations of organism to see changes, except | polyploidy |
| Considering the current scientific literature on global warming, which statement best summarizes the most recent findings? | The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that the evidence for global warming is unequivocal and that it is very likely due to human-induced changes in greenhouse gases. |
| Why is energy lost when herbivores eat primary producers? | Primary producers have energy stored in indigestible substances. |
| reinforcement of postzygotic isolation is occurring, what would you expect if you compare the calls of the two species in zones of sympatry versus zones of allopatry? | Calls would be more different in areas of sympatry. |
| Based on these results, if this type of tetraploid formed in the wild, what would be the result? | The tetraploids would be reproductively isolated from both parent species. |
| The cladistic approach to estimating phylogenetic trees is most like the approach of which species concept? | phylogenetic species concept |
| Which of the following is an example of homoplasy? | cell walls in plants and fungi |
| These offspring will breed with each other or with birds from either parent population, and all offspring of these pairings appear intermediate to various degrees. | spatial reproductive isolation |
| Which of the following most often controls the rate of nutrient cycling in ecosystems? | rate of decomposition of detritus |
| Which of the following could be expected to occur over the long term if the populations remain in sympatry | Behavioral forms of isolation will develop. |
| How are two different species most likely to evolve from one ancestral species? | allopatrically, after the ancestral species has split into two populations |
| Based on this information, which is the most likely outcome? | extinction of one of the species |
| Which of the following does not tend to promote speciation? | gene flow |
| When primary producers expend energy to build new tissue, this is | net primary productivity and the amount of energy available to consumers |
| Applying the principle of parsimony to the trait "ability to fly," which of the two phylogenetic trees above is better? | Tree 1 |
| What can you say about the isolating mechanisms of these two species? | Their winter habitat has no bearing on their degree of reproductive isolation. |
| Which of the following statements about human races is correct? | Very little genetic divergence occurs among different human populations |
| You own 300 acres of patchy temperate forest. Which one of the following actions would increase the net primary productivity of the area the most? | planting 500 new trees |
| Should the two forms of moths be considered separate species? | No. |
| Natural selection for traits that keep distinct populations from reproducing with each other is called reinforcement. When is reinforcement beneficial? | when hybrids have lower fitness than either parent population |
| Why are changes in the global carbon cycle important? | All of the above are why changes in the global carbon cycle are important |
| Considering the global nitrogen cycle, how are humans altering this cycle? | industrial nitrogen fixation |
| What can you infer from this information? | Postzygotic isolation exists between the two frog species. |
| Which of the following forms a monophyletic group? | E, F, and G |
| Which of the following could be a vicariance event for species in that habitat? | The level of water in a lake recedes, creating two lakes where there used to be one. |
| In the phylogenetic trees above, numbers represent species and the same species are shown in both trees. Which two species are represented as sister species in Tree 2 but are not shown as sister species in Tree 1? | 3 and 4 |
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Es10gg