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AP World Unit II
AP World - 1200-19th cen.
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Ghengis Khan | The title of Temüjin when he ruled the Mongols (1206-1227). It means the "oceanic" or "universal" leader. Genghis Khan was the founder of the Mongol Empire. (p. 325) |
| Mongols | A people of this name is mentioned as early as the records of the Tang Empire, living as nomads in northern Eurasia. After 1206 they established an enormous empire under Genghis Khan, linking western and eastern Eurasia. >(p. 325) |
| steppe | Treeless plains, especially the high, flat expanses of northern Eurasia, which usually have little rain and are covered with coarse grass. They are good lands for nomads and their herds. Good for breeding horses: essential to mongol military. (326) |
| nomadism | A way of life, forced by a scarcity of resources, in which groups of people continually migrate to find pastures and water. (p. 326) |
| Il-Khan | A "secondary" or "peripheral" khan based in Persia. The Il-khans' khanate was founded by Hülegü, a grandson of Genghis Khan, was based at Tabriz in modern Azerbaijan. It controlled much of Iran and Iraq. (p. 333) |
| Golden Horde | Mongol khanate founded by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu. It was based in southern Russia and quickly adopted both the Turkic language and Islam. Also known as the Kipchak Horde. (p. 333) |
| Rashid al-Din | Adviser to the Il-khan ruler Ghazan, who converted to Islam on Rashid's advice. (p. 334) |
| tax farming | A government's use of private collectors to collect taxes. Individuals or corporations contract with the government to collect a fixed amount for the government and are permitted to keep as profit everything they collect over that amount. (p. 334) |
| Timur | Member of a prominent family of the Mongols' Jagadai Khanate, Timur through conquest gained control over much of Central Asia and Iran. He consolidated the status of Sunni Islam as orthodox, and his descendants, the Timurids, maintained his empire. (336) |
| Ibn Khaldun | Arab historian. He developed an influential theory on the rise and fall of states. Born in Tunis, he spent his later years in Cairo as a teacher and judge. In 1400 he was sent to Damascus to negotiate the surrender of the city. (336) |
| Nasir al-Din Tusi | Persian mathematician and cosmologist whose academy near Tabriz provided the model for the movement of the planets that helped to inspire the Copernican model of the solar system. (p. 337) |
| Alexander Nevski | Prince of Novgorod (r. 1236-1263). He submitted to the invading Mongols in 1240 and received recognition as the leader of the Russian princes under the Golden Horde. (p. 339) |
| tsar | From Latin caesar, this Russian title for a monarch was first used in reference to a Russian ruler by Ivan III (r. 1462-1505). (pp. 340, 551) |
| Ottomans | Turks who had come to Anatolia in the same wave of migrations as the Seljuks. (344) |
| Mamluks | Under the Islamic system of military slavery, Turkic military slaves who formed an important part of the armed forces of the Abbasid Caliphate of the ninth and tenth centuries. Mamluks eventually founded their own state, ruling Egypt and Syria (1250-1517) |
| Yuan Empire | Empire created in China and Siberia by Khubilai Khan. (p. 349) |
| lama | In Tibetan Buddhism, a teacher. (p. 351) |
| Khubilai Khan | Last of the Mongol Great Khans (r. 1260-1294) and founder of the Yuan Empire. (p. 351) |
| Beijing | China's northern capital, first used as an imperial capital in 906 and now the capital of the People's Republic of China. (p. 351) |
| cottage industries | Weaving, sewing, carving, and other small-scale industries that can be done in the home. The laborers, frequently women, are usually independent. (p. 353) |
| Manchuria | Region of Northeast Asia bounded by the Yalu River on the south and the Amur River on the east and north. (p. 354) |
| Ming Empire | Empire based in China that Zhu Yuanzhang established after the overthrow of the Yuan Empire. The Ming emperor Yongle sponsored the building of the Forbidden City and the voyages of Zheng He. (355) |
| Yongle | Reign period of Zhu Di (1360-1424), the third emperor of the Ming Empire (r. 1403-1424).Sponsored the building of the Forbidden City, a huge encyclopedia project, the expeditions of Zheng He, and the reopening of China's borders to trade and travel (355) |
| Forbidden City | The walled section of Beijing where emperors lived between 1121 and 1924. A portion is now a residence for leaders of the People's Republic of China. (p. 355) |
| Zheng He | An imperial eunuch and Muslim, entrusted by the Ming emperor Yongle with a series of state voyages that took his gigantic ships through the Indian Ocean, from Southeast Asia to Africa. (pp. 355, 422) |
| technology transfer | The communication of specific plans, designs, or educational programs necessary for the use of new technologies from one society or class to another. (p. 358) |
| Yi Kingdom | The Yi dynasty ruled Korea from the fall of the Koryo kingdom to the colonization of Korea by Japan. (p. 362) |
| cotton | The plant that produces fibers from which cotton textiles are woven. Native to India, cotton spread throughout Asia and then to the New World. It has been a major cash crop in various places, including early Islamic Iran, Yi Korea, Egypt, & US (363) |
| kamikaze | The "divine wind," which the Japanese credited with blowing Mongol invaders away from their shores in 1281. (p. 365) |
| Ashikaga Shogunate | The second of Japan's military governments headed by a shogun (a military ruler). Sometimes called the Muromachi Shogunate. (p. 365) |
| Champa | A state formerly located in what is now southern Vietnam. It was hostile to Annam and was annexed by Annam and destroyed as an independent entity in 1500. (p. 366) |
| tropics | Equatorial region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. It is characterized by generally warm or hot temperatures year-round, though much variation exists due to altitude and other factors. (370) |
| Ibn Battuta | Moroccan Muslim scholar, the most widely traveled individual of his time. He wrote a detailed account of his visits to Islamic lands from China to Spain and the western Sudan. (p. 373) |
| monsoon | These strong and predictable winds have long been ridden across the open sea by sailors, and the large amounts of rainfall that they deposit on parts of India, Southeast Asia, and China allow for the cultivation of several crops a year. (pp. 174, 371) |
| Delhi Sulatanate | Centralized Indian empire of varying extent, created by Muslim invaders. (p. 374) |
| Mali | Empire created by indigenous Muslims in western Sudan of West Africa from the thirteenth to fifteenth century. It was famous for its role in the trans-Saharan gold trade. (See also Timbuktu.) (p. 375) |
| Mansa Kankan Musa | Ruler of Mali (r. 1312-1337). His pilgrimage through Egypt to Mecca in 1324-1325 established the empire's reputation for wealth in the Mediterranean world. (p. 376) |
| Gujarat | Region of western India famous for trade and manufacturing; the inhabitants are called Gujarati. (p. 380) |
| dhow | Ship of small to moderate size used in the western Indian Ocean, traditionally with a triangular sail and a sewn timber hull. (p. 382) |
| Swahili Coast | East African shores of the Indian Ocean between the Horn of Africa and the Zambezi River; from the Arabic sawahil, meaning "shores." (p. 383) |
| Great Zimbabwe | City, now in ruins (in the modern African country of Zimbabwe), whose many stone structures were built between about 1250 and 1450, when it was a trading center and the capital of a large state. (p. 385) |
| Aden | Port city in the modern south Arabian country of Yemen. It has been a major trading center in the Indian Ocean since ancient times. (p. 385) |
| Malacca | Port city in the modern Southeast Asian country of Malaysia, founded about 1400 as a trading center on the Strait of Malacca. Also spelled Melaka. (p. 387) |
| Urdu | A Persian-influenced literary form of Hindi written in Arabic characters and used as a literary language since the 1300s. (p. 388) |
| Timbuktu | City on the Niger River in the modern country of Mali. It was founded by the Tuareg as a seasonal camp sometime after 1000. As part of the Mali empire, Timbuktu became a major major terminus of the trans-Saharan trade and a center of Islamic learning (388 |
| Latin West | Historians' name for the territories of Europe that adhered to the Latin rite of Christianity and used the Latin language for intellectual exchange in the period ca. 1000-1500. (p. 394) |
| three-field system | A rotational system for agriculture in which one field grows grain, one grows legumes, and one lies fallow. It gradually replaced two-field system in medieval Europe. (p. 396) |
| Black Death | An outbreak of bubonic plague that spread across Asia, North Africa, and Europe in the mid-fourteenth century, carrying off vast numbers of persons. (p. 397) |
| water wheel | A mechanism that harnesses the energy in flowing water to grind grain or to power machinery. It was used in many parts of the world but was especially common in Europe from 1200 to 1900. (p. 398) |
| Hanseatic League | An economic and defensive alliance of the free towns in northern Germany, founded about 1241 and most powerful in the fourteenth century. (p. 401) |
| guild | In medieval Europe, an association of men (rarely women), such as merchants, artisans, or professors, who worked in a particular trade and banded together to promote their economic and political interests. (403) |
| Gothic Cathedrals | Large churches originating in twelfth-century France; built in an architectural style featuring pointed arches, tall vaults and spires, flying buttresses, and large stained-glass windows. (p. 405) |
| Renaissance (European) | A period of intense artistic and intellectual activity, said to be a "rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture. Usually divided into an Italian Renaissance, from roughly the mid-fourteenth to mid-fifteenth century, and a Northern trans-Alpine Renaissance (407,445) |
| universities | Degree-granting institutions of higher learning. Those that appeared in Latin West from about 1200 onward became the model of all modern universities. (p. 407) |
| scholasticism | A philosophical and theological system, associated with Thomas Aquinas, devised to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Roman Catholic theology in the thirteenth century. (p. 408) |
| humanists (renaissance) | European scholars, writers, and teachers associated with the study of the humanities (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, languages, and moral philosophy), influential in the fifteenth century and later. (p. 408) |
| Hundred Years War | Series of campaigns over control of the throne of France, involving English and French royal families and French noble families. (p. 413) |
| printing press | A mechanical device for transferring text or graphics from a woodblock or type to paper using ink. Presses using movable type first appeared in Europe in about 1450. See also movable type. (p. 409) |
| Great Western Schism | A division in the Latin (Western) Christian Church between 1378 and 1417, when rival claimants to the papacy existed in Rome and Avignon. (p. 411) |
| new monarchies | Historians' term for the monarchies in France, England, and Spain from 1450 to 1600. The centralization of royal power was increasing within more or less fixed territorial limits. (p. 414) |
| reconquest of Iberia | Beginning in the eleventh century, military campaigns by various Iberian Christian states to recapture territory taken by Muslims. In 1492 the last Muslim ruler was defeated, and Spain and Portugal emerged as united kingdoms. (p. 414) |
| Arawak | Amerindian peoples who inhabited the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean at the time of Columbus. (p. 423) |
| Henry the Navigator | (1394-1460) Portuguese prince who promoted the study of navigation and directed voyages of exploration down the western coast of Africa. (p. 425) |
| caravel | A small, highly maneuverable three-masted ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish in the exploration of the Atlantic. (p. 427) |
| Gold Coast | Region of the Atlantic coast of West Africa occupied by modern Ghana; named for its gold exports to Europe from the 1470s onward. (p. 428) |
| Bartolomeu Dias | Portuguese explorer who in 1488 led the first expedition to sail around the southern tip of Africa from the Atlantic and sight the Indian Ocean. (p. 428) |
| Vasco da Gama | Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498 he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route. (p. 428) |
| Christopher Columbus | Genoese mariner who in the service of Spain led expeditions across the Atlantic, reestablishing contact between the peoples of the Americas and the Old World and opening the way to Spanish conquest and colonization. (p. 430) |
| Ferdinand Magellan | Portuguese navigator who led the Spanish expedition of 1519-1522 that was the first to sail around the world. (p. 431) |
| conquistadors | Early-sixteenth-century Spanish adventurers who conquered Mexico, Central America, and Peru. (See Cortés, Hernán; Pizarro, Francisco.) (p. 436) |
| Hernan Cortes | Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the conquest of Aztec Mexico in 1519-1521 for Spain. (p. 437) |
| Moctezuma II | Last Aztec emperor, overthrown by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés. (p. 437) |
| Fransisco Pizarro | Spanish explorer who led the conquest of the Inca Empire of Peru in 1531-1533. (p. 438) |
| Atahualpa | Last ruling Inca emperor of Peru. He was executed by the Spanish. (p. 438) |
| papacy | The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church, of which the pope is the head. (pp. 258, 445) |
| Renaissance | A period of intense artistic and intellectual activity, said to be a "rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture. Usually divided into an Italian Renaissance, from roughly the mid-fourteenth to mid-fifteenth century, and a Northern Renaissance 1400-1600 (445) |
| indulgence | The forgiveness of the punishment due for past sins, granted by the Catholic Church authorities as a reward for a pious act. Martin Luther's protest against the sale of indulgences is often seen as touching off the Protestant Reformation. (p. 446) |
| Protestant Reformation | Religious reform movement within the Latin Christian Church beginning in 1519. It resulted in the "protesters" forming several new Christian denominations, including the Lutheran and Reformed Churches and the Church of England. (p. 446) |
| Catholic Reformation | Religious reform movement within the Latin Christian Church, begun in response to the Protestant Reformation. It clarified Catholic theology and reformed clerical training and discipline. (p. 447) |
| Holy Roman Empire | Loose federation of mostly German states and principalities, headed by an emperor elected by the princes. It lasted from 962 to 1806. (pp. 260, 449) |
| Habsburg | A powerful European family that provided many Holy Roman Emperors, founded the Austrian (later Austro-Hungarian) Empire, and ruled sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Spain. (p. 449) |
| absolution | The theory popular in France and other early modern European monarchies that royal power should be free of constitutional checks. (p. 452) |
| constitutionalism | The theory developed in early modern England and spread elsewhere that royal power should be subject to legal and legislative checks. (p. 452) |
| balance of power | The policy in international relations by which, beginning in the eighteenth century, the major European states acted together to prevent any one of them from becoming too powerful. (p. 455) |
| bourgeoisie | In early modern Europe, the class of well-off town dwellers whose wealth came from manufacturing, finance, commerce, and allied professions. (p. 459) |
| joint-stock company | A business, often backed by a government charter, that sold shares to individuals to raise money for its trading enterprises and to spread the risks (and profits) among many investors. (p. 460) |
| stock exchange | A place where shares in a company or business enterprise are bought and sold. (p. 460) |
| Little Ice Age | A century-long period of cool climate that began in the 1590s. Its ill effects on agriculture in northern Europe were notable. (p. 462) |
| deforestation | The removal of trees faster than forests can replace themselves. (p. 462) |
| witch-hunt | The pursuit of people suspected of witchcraft, especially in northern Europe in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (p. 464) |
| Scientific Revolution | The intellectual movement in Europe, initially associated with planetary motion and other aspects of physics, that by the seventeenth century had laid the groundwork for modern science. (p. 466) |
| Enlightenment | A philosophical movement in eighteenth-century Europe that fostered the belief that one could reform society by discovering rational laws that governed social behavior and were just as scientific as the laws of physics. (pp. 468, 574) |
| Columbian Exchange | The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and the rest of the world following Columbus's voyages. (p. 472) |
| Council of the Indes | The institution responsible for supervising Spain's colonies in the Americas from 1524 to the early eighteenth century, when it lost all but judicial responsibilities. (p. 476) |
| Bartolome de Las Casas | First bishop of Chiapas, in southern Mexico. He devoted most of his life to protecting Amerindian peoples from exploitation. His major achievement was the New Laws of 1542, which limited the ability of Spanish settlers to compel Amerindians to labor, (476 |
| Potosi | Located in Bolivia, one of the richest silver mining centers and most populous cities in colonial Spanish America. (p. 479) |
| encomienda | A grant of authority over a population of Amerindians in the Spanish colonies. It provided the grant holder with a supply of cheap labor and periodic payments of goods by the Amerindians. It obliged the grant holder to Christianize the Amerindians. (479) |
| creoles | In colonial Spanish America, term used to describe someone of European descent born in the New World. Elsewhere in the Americas, the term is used to describe all nonnative peoples. (p. 482) |
| mestizo | The term used by Spanish authorities to describe someone of mixed Amerindian and European descent. (p. 484) |
| mulatto | The term used in Spanish and Portuguese colonies to describe someone of mixed African and European descent. (p. 484) |
| indentured servant | A migrant to British colonies in the Americas who paid for passage by agreeing to work for a set term ranging from four to seven years. (p. 486) |
| House of Burgesses | Elected assembly in colonial Virginia, created in 1618. (p. 486) |
| Pilgrims | Group of English Protestant dissenters who established Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620 to seek religious freedom after having lived briefly in the Netherlands. (p. 487) |
| Puritans | English Protestant dissenters who believed that God predestined souls to heaven or hell before birth. They founded Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629. (p. 487) |
| Iroquois Confederacy | An alliance of five northeastern Amerindian peoples (after 1722 six) that made decisions on military and diplomatic issues through a council of representatives. Allied first with the Dutch and later with the English, it dominated W. New England. (488) |
| New France | French colony in North America, with a capital in Quebec, founded 1608. New France fell to the British in 1763. (p. 489) |
| coureurs de bois | (runners of the woods) French fur traders, many of mixed Amerindian heritage, who lived among and often married with Amerindian peoples of North America. (p. 489) |
| Tupac Amaru II | Member of Inca aristocracy who led a rebellion against Spanish authorities in Peru in 1780-1781. He was captured and executed with his wife and other members of his family. (p. 493) |
| Atlantic System | The network of trading links after 1500 that moved goods, wealth, people, and cultures around the Atlantic Ocean basin. (p. 497) |
| chartered Company | Groups of private investors who paid an annual fee to France and England in exchange for a monopoly over trade to the West Indies colonies. (p. 498) |
| Dutch West India Company | Trading company chartered by the Dutch government to conduct its merchants' trade in the Americas and Africa. (p. 498) |
| plantocracy | In the West Indian colonies, the rich men who owned most of the slaves and most of the land, especially in the eighteenth century. (p. 502) |
| driver | A privileged male slave whose job was to ensure that a slave gang did its work on a plantation. (p. 503) |
| seasoning | An often difficult period of adjustment to new climates, disease environments, and work routines, such as that experienced by slaves newly arrived in the Americas. (p. 504) |
| manumission | A grant of legal freedom to an individual slave. (p. 505) |
| maroon | A slave who ran away from his or her master. Often a member of a community of runaway slaves in the West Indies and South America. (p. 505) |
| capitalism | The economic system of large financial institutions-banks, stock exchanges, investment companies-that first developed in early modern Europe. Commercial capitalism, the trading system of the early modern economy. (506) |
| mercantilism | European government policies of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries designed to promote overseas trade between a country and its colonies and accumulate precious metals by requiring colonies to trade only with their motherland country 506 |
| Royal African Company | A trading company chartered by the English government in 1672 to conduct its merchants' trade on the Atlantic coast of Africa. (p. 507) |
| Great Circuit | The network of Atlantic Ocean trade routes between Europe, Africa, and the Americas that underlay theAtlantic system. (p. 508) |
| Middle Passage | The part of the Great Circuit involving the transportation of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas. (p. 508) |
| Suleiman the Magnificent | The most illustrious sultan of the Ottoman Empire (r. 1520-1566); also known as Suleiman Kanuni, "The Lawgiver." He significantly expanded the empire in the Balkans and eastern Mediterranean. (p. 526) |
| Janissary | Infantry, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the Ottoman army from the fifteenth century until the corps was abolished in 1826. See also devshirme. (p. 526, 675) |
| devshirme | "Selection" in Turkish. The system by which boys from Christian communities were taken by the Ottoman state to serve as Janissaries.(p. 526) |
| Tulip Period | Last years of the reign of Ottoman sultan Ahmed III, during which European styles and attitudes became briefly popular in Istanbul. (p. 530) |
| Safavid Empire | Iranian kingdom (1502-1722) established by Ismail Safavi, who declared Iran a Shi'ite state. (p. 531) |
| Shi'ite Islam | Branch of Islam believing that God vests leadership of the community in a descendant of Muhammad's son-in-law Ali. Shi'ism is the state religion of Iran. (See also Sunnis.) (pp. 225, 531) |
| Hidden Imam | Last in a series of twelve descendants of Muhammad's son-in-law Ali, whom Shi'ites consider divinely appointed leaders of the Muslim community. In occlusion since ca. 873, he is expected to return as a messiah at the end of time. (p. 532) |
| Shah Abbas I | Shah of Iran (r. 1587-1629). The most illustrious ruler of the Safavid Empire, he moved the imperial capital to Isfahan in 1598, where he erected many palaces, mosques, and public buildings. (p. 533) |
| Mughal Empire | Muslim state (1526-1857) exercising dominion over most of India in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (p. 536) |
| Akbar | Most illustrious sultan of the Mughal Empire in India (r. 1556-1605). He expanded the empire and pursued a policy of conciliation with Hindus. (p. 536) |
| mansabs | In India, grants of land given in return for service by rulers of the Mughal Empire. (p. 536) |
| Rajputs | Members of a mainly Hindu warrior caste from northwest India. The Mughal emperors drew most of their Hindu officials from this caste, and Akbar I married a Rajput princess. (p. 537) |
| Sikhism | Indian religion founded by the guru Nanak (1469-1539) in the Punjab region of northwest India. After the Mughal emperor ordered the beheading of the ninth guru in 1675, Sikh warriors mounted armed resistance to Mughal rule. (p. 538) |
| Acheh Sultanate | Muslim kingdom in northern Sumatra. Main center of Islamic expansion in Southeast Asia in the early seventeenth century, it declined after the Dutch seized Malacca from Portugal in 1641. (p. 541) |
| Oman | Arab state based in Musqat, the main port in the southwest region of the Arabian peninsula. Oman succeeded Portugal as a power in the western Indian Ocean in the eighteenth century. (p. 542) |
| Swahili | Bantu language with Arabic loanwords spoken in coastal regions of East Africa. (p. 542) |
| Batavi | Fort established ca.1619 as headquarters of Dutch East India Company operations in Indonesia; today the city of Jakarta. (p. 543) |
| Jesuits | Members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534. They played an important part in the Catholic Reformation and helped create conduits of trade and knowledge between Asia and Europe. (p. 548) |
| Siberia | The extreme northeastern sector of Asia, including the Kamchatka Peninsula and the present Russian coast of the Arctic Ocean, the Bering Strait, and the Sea of Okhotsk. (p. 551) |
| Muscovy | Russian principality that emerged gradually during the era of Mongol domination. The Muscovite dynasty ruled without interruption from 1276 to 1598. (p. 551) |
| tsar | From Latin caesar, this Russian title for a monarch was first used in reference to a Russian ruler by Ivan III (r. 1462-1505). (pp. 340, 551) |
| Mikhail Romanov | Russian tsar (r. 1613-1645) A member of the Russian aristocracy, he became tsar after the old line of Muscovite rulers was deposed. (p. 551) |
| Cossaks | Peoples of the Russian Empire who lived outside the farming villages, often as herders, mercenaries, or outlaws. Cossacks led the conquest of Siberia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (p. 552) |
| Peter the Great | (1672-1725) Russian tsar (r. 1689-1725). He enthusiastically introduced Western languages and technologies to the Russian elite, moving the capital from Moscow to the new city of St. Petersburg. (p. 552) |
| autocracy | The theory justifying strong, centralized rule, such as by the tsar in Russia or Haile Selassie in Ethiopia. The autocrat did not rely on the aristocracy or the clergy for his or her legitimacy. (p. 553) |
| serfs | In medieval Europe, an agricultural laborer legally bound to a lord's property and obligated to perform set services for the lord. In Russia some serfs worked as artisans and in factories; serfdom was not abolished there until 1861. (pp. 254, 553) |
| Ming Empire | Empire based in China that Zhu Yuanzhang established after the overthrow of the Yuan Empire. The Ming emperor Yongle sponsored the building of the Forbidden City and the voyages of Zheng He. (554) |
| dalai lama | Originally, a title meaning "universal priest" that the Mongol khans invented and bestowed on a Tibetan lama (priest) in the late 1500s to legitimate their power in Tibet. Subsequently, the title of the religious and political leader of Tibet. (p. 556) |
| Manchus | Federation of Northeast Asian peoples who founded the Qing Empire. (p. 556) |
| Qing Empire | Empire established in China by Manchus who overthrew the Ming Empire in 1644. At various times the Qing also controlled Manchuria, Mongolia, Turkestan, and Tibet. The last Qing emperor was overthrown in 1911. (p. 556) |
| Kangxi | Qing emperor (r. 1662-1722). He oversaw the greatest expansion of the Qing Empire. |
| variolation | The technique of enhancing immunity by exposing patients to dried mucous taken from those already infected. (p. 559) |
| Macartney Mission | The unsuccessful attempt by the British Empire to establish diplomatic relations with the Qing Empire. (p. 560) |
| Tokugawa Shogunate | The last of the three shogunates of Japan. (p. 563) |
| samurai | Literally "those who serve," the hereditary military elite of the Tokugawa Shogunate. (p. 563) |
| Enlightenment | A philosophical movement in eighteenth-century Europe that fostered the belief that one could reform society by discovering rational laws that governed social behavior and were just as scientific as the laws of physics. (pp. 468, 574) |
| Benjamin Franklin | American intellectual, inventor, and politician He helped to negotiate French support for the American Revolution. (p. 577) |
| George Washington | Military commander of the American Revolution. He was the first elected president of the United States (1789-1799). (p. 581) |
| Joseph Brant | Mohawk leader who supported the British during the American Revolution. (p. 581) |
| Constitutional Convention | Meeting in 1787 of the elected representatives of the thirteen original states to write the Constitution of the United States. (p. 583) |
| Estates General | France's traditional national assembly with representatives of the three estates, or classes, in French society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The calling of the Estates General in 1789 led to the French Revolution. (p. 585) |
| National Assembly | French Revolutionary assembly (1789-1791). Called first as the Estates General, the three estates came together and demanded radical change. It passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789. (p. 585) |
| Declaration of the Rights of Man | Statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the French National Assembly at the beginning of the French Revolution. (p. 586) |
| Jacobins | Radical republicans during the French Revolution. They were led by Maximilien Robespierre from 1793 to 1794. (See also Robespierre, Maximilien.) (p. 588) |
| Maximillien Robespierre | Young provincial lawyer who led the most radical phases of the French Revolution. His execution ended the Reign of Terror. See Jacobins. (p. 589) |
| Napoleon Bonaparte | . Overthrew French Directory in 1799 and became emperor of the French in 1804. Failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814. Returned to power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exile. (p. 591) |
| gens de couleur | Free men and women of color in Haiti. They sought greater political rights and later supported the Haitian Revolution. (See also L'Ouverture, François Dominique Toussaint.) (p. 593) |
| Francois Dominique Toussaint L'Ouverture | Leader of the Haitian Revolution. He freed the slaves and gained effective independence for Haiti despite military interventions by the British and French. (p. 593) |
| Congress of Vienna | Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon I. (p. 594) |
| Revolutions of 1848 | Democratic and nationalist revolutions that swept across Europe. The monarchy in France was overthrown. In Germany, Austria, Italy, and Hungary the revolutions failed. (p. 595) |
| Industrial Revolution | The transformation of the economy, the environment, and living conditions, occurring first in England in the eighteenth century, that resulted from the use of steam engines, the mechanization of manufacturing in factories, transit, and communications (599 |
| agricultural revolution | The transformation of farming that resulted in the eighteenth century from the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock breeding, and consolidation of small holdings into large farms from which tenants were expelled (600) |
| mass production | The manufacture of many identical products by the division of labor into many small repetitive tasks. This method was introduced into the manufacture of pottery by Josiah Wedgwood and into the spinning of cotton thread by Richard Arkwright. (602) |
| Josiah Wedgwood | English industrialist whose pottery works were the first to produce fine-quality pottery by industrial methods. (p. 603) |
| division of labor | Manufacturing technique that breaks down a craft into many simple and repetitive tasks that can be performed by unskilled workers. Pioneered in the pottery works of Josiah Wedgwood and in other eighteenth-century factories, increasing productivity, (603) |
| mechanization | The application of machinery to manufacturing and other activities. Among the first processes to be mechanized were the spinning of cotton thread and the weaving of cloth in late-eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century England. (p. 603) |
| Richard Arkwright | English inventor and entrepreneur who became the wealthiest and most successful textile manufacturer of the early Industrial Revolution. He invented the water frame, a machine that, with minimal human supervision, could spin several threads at once. (604) |
| Crystal Palace | Building erected in Hyde Park, London, for the Great Exhibition of 1851. Made of iron and glass, like a gigantic greenhouse, it was a symbol of the industrial age. (p. 606) |
| steam engine | A machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. Thomas Newcomen built the first crude but workable steam engine in 1712. James Watt vastly improved his device in the 1760s and 1770s. Steam power was then applied to machinery. (607) |
| James Watt | Scot who invented the condenser and other improvements that made the steam engine a practical source of power for industry and transportation. The watt, an electrical measurement, is named after him. (p. 607) |
| electric telegraph | A device for rapid, long-distance transmission of information over an electric wire. It was introduced in England and North America in the 1830s and 1840s and replaced telegraph systems that utilized visual signals such as semaphores. (609) |
| business cycle | Recurrent swings from economic hard times to recovery and growth, then back to hard times and a repetition of the sequence. (p. 615) |
| laissez faire | The idea that government should refrain from interfering in economic affairs. The classic exposition of laissez-faire principles is Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776). (p. 615) |
| positivism | A philosophy developed by the French count of Saint-Simon. Positivists believed that social and economic problems could be solved by the application of the scientific method, leading to continuous progress. Popular in France and Latin America. (616) |
| utopian socialism | Philosophy introduced by the Frenchman Charles Fourier in the early nineteenth century. Utopian socialists hoped to create humane alternatives to industrial capitalism by building self-sustaining communities whose inhabitants would work cooperatively (616 |
| Simon Bolivar | The most important military leader in the struggle for independence in South America. Born in Venezuela, he led military forces there and in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. (p. 623) |
| Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla | Mexican priest who led the first stage of the Mexican independence war in 1810. He was captured and executed in 1811. (p. 625) |
| Jose Maria Morelos | Mexican priest and former student of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, he led the forces fighting for Mexican independence until he was captured and executed in 1814. (See also Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel.) (p. 626) |
| Confederation of 1867 | Negotiated union of the formerly separate colonial governments of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. This new Dominion of Canada with a central government in Ottawa is seen as the beginning of the Canadian nation.(p. 627) |
| personalist leaders | Political leaders who rely on charisma and their ability to mobilize and direct the masses of citizens outside the authority of constitutions and laws. Nineteenth-century examples include José Antonio Páez of Venezuela and Andrew Jackson of the US. (628) |
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