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COMM 2001
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| What is ethnography | -research method in which the researcher is immersed in the social setting for an extended period |
| Bronislow Malinoski | Argonauts of the western pacific, structure of ethnography laid out as an anthropological method, trobiand people in New Guinea |
| Anthropology in communication | - used to specifically study the nature of communicating behaviours - analysis of inter-communication of specific groups - understand how people see the world in their way |
| Key Ethnography issues | - research questions - settings: closed/non-public vs. open/public settings |
| Viability of the ethnographer Overt role | participants are aware of research intentions |
| Getting in closed settings | - use friends, colleagues, and contacts to help you - get support from sponsors within the group - gain clearance from higher level "gatekeepers" |
| Getting to open settings | - "hanging around" - key informant sponsor/gate keeper acquaintances who then act as sponsors |
| complete participant (covert) | - joining what they are doing without giving away your identity - eg. becoming a bike gang member or assembly line worker |
| participant as observer (overt) | - have the person you are studying to observe them |
| complete observer (covert) | - identity is not revealed and no engagement with others - eg. observing people through one way glass and they don't know they are being observed |
| theoretical sampling | - aim to discover categories and their properties - collecting, coding and analysing data and developing grounded theory in observations - replaces probability sampling as it is inappropriate for qualitative research |
| theoretical saturation | - when categories and concepts are dense enough no more data collection is needed |
| sampling in ethnography | - uses both convenience and snowball sampling - researcher has to sample at different times and different locations |
| snowball sampling | - find someone that would be part of your survey and ask if they know anyone who want to join |
| purposive sampline | - looking for people with specific experiences |
| Taking Field Notes | - write down notes asap - vivid clear descriptions - gradually narrow your focus |
| Types of field notes | mental notes - jotted notes - full field notes |
| Ending ethnography study | when theoretical saturation occurs - personal/family commitments - funding runs out - deadlines |
| qualitative researcher | understanding participant's view - theory emerges from observations - inductive relationship -interpretive as epistemology: emphasis on the subject - constructive ontology as emphasis on the rich deep meaning such as words to understand social context |
| interpretivist | process to see the world from subject's point of view - epistomology |
| constructive ontology | - how individual creates meaning through social forces such as religion, culture, identity |
| research methods involved in qualitative research | textual analysis, ethnography/particpant observation, interview |
| steps in qualitative research | general research questions, selecting sites and subjects, collection of data, interpret data, conceptual and theoretical work |
| alternative criteria to reliability, validity, objectivity | authenticity: internal validity, portability: external validity how can we go from research to beyond real world, precision= replication: how we describe what research specifies, impartiality= objectivity: has researcher removed themselves from research |
| criticisms of qualitative research | too subjective: researcher decides what to focus, difficult to replicate: unstructured format, problems of generalization: sample not representative, lack of transparency: unclear what researcher did |
| problems between quantitative/qualitative contrast | exaggerated differences between 2 research strategies, based on contrast dualitites: behaviours and meaning, theory and concepts as emergent vs. preformulated, numbers vs words, artifical vs natural |
| qualitative/quantitative documents | qualitative/quantitative documents qualitative: semiotics and ethnographic content analysis of images, conversations, texts quantitative: documents and text, predetermined categories, systematic |
| Max Weber | 1910: sociologist and radio developed |
| Walter Lippman | 1922: political scientist, redefined ideas of Max Weber |
| Bernard Berelson | first content analysis scientist, wrote book called "content analysis" |
| George Gerbner | wrote "case in violence in tridania", largest text at time, vienam war, riots for equality |
| People who use the content analysis | Historians: examine texts on civilizations not in contemporary society psychologists: examining patient behaviour political analysis: how citizens socialize in militaristic environment mass communication: content analysis for large groups of people |
| uses of CA in communications | describing comm. content of text, testing hypothesis, comparing media to real world: violence in medias, assessing images of groups in society, examining media content as a starting point for examining media effects |
| Research questions | must be clearly specified before analysis, dimension of text to quantify |
| Select texts: | predetermined by historical event, retrospective analysis of older texts, ongoing general phenomenon, rare event |
| sampling methods (content analysis) | 1) constructed week 2) stratified 3) multi-purpose 4) purposive 5) combination |
| constructed week | selecting newspapers from one organization of each day, long period of time |
| stratified | divide samples into strata, productions of each country, levels of specific languages |
| multi-purpose | break down stages of data, if 50 newspapers, select every tenth, then select paper |
| What is counted | actors, words: emotive words and connotations, subjects and themes, images: look at faces, disposition: value, bias and ideology |
| How to develop codes | grounded theory: read all articles, find and let articles speak to you, keep in mind research questions, inductive approach, identification o elements, trial and error |
| coding schedules | form into coded data entered, tabular form, each column represents dimension to be analysed, each raw represents unit of analysis (item of text), codes written into blank cells in a table |
| coding manual | set of instructions for coders, list possible categories for each dimension, shows which codes and numbers refer to which category, guidance to decide on code, what to do if more than one code applies, may correspond to existing classificatory schemes |
| coding | 1) define the material: online or not, opinion 2) determine the content: look for keywords 3) techniques to define direction of material |
| Summary Coding | read whole article and write 1-2 sentences about it |
| explicative coding | reread language of the article especially break down subjects, adjectives and nouns |
| structuring coding | every article has a news frame, it guides direction of the coding |
| beginning coding process | 1) ask data consistent set of questions 2) analyse data in great detail 3) stop frequently to assess progress 4) never assume relevance or irrelevance of textual element |
| analytical induction and grounded theory: | key to developing theory, determines what else to collect, achieve analytical goals or theoretical saturation |
| Semiotics | signs, different theory persepective Sauceare:signifier (form of sign), signified (meaning) |
| discourse analysis | all types of text |
| latent content categories | hidden meaning of the text |
| After Coding | look for structure beyond the codes, look for cases that don't fit, explain, look for trends/patterns/differences |
| Potential pitfalls to coding | - mutual exclusive categories - no clear instructions to coders |
| Reliability of coding | highly dependent on coders |
| Viability of coding | -issues of subjectivity, codebook must be well described |
| advantages of content analysis | transparent, replicable, objective because minimal interpretation, relatively unobtrusive, flexible: applied to various texts, provides info about difficult populations |
| Disadvantages of content analysis | -only as good as quality of documents, coding manuals interpreted coders draw on background knowledge, - risk of inter-coder and inter coder variation and reliability, -difficult to justify claims about latent content: no answers to why questions |
| Writing up content analysis | journal report format, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion |
| APA Style | Title page, page headers, page number, type numbers in all caps flush left, centre the title |
| When is an ethnography appropriate?How to gather data? | -When it allows a rich understanding of social reality from the participants perspective Eg: interpretivist epistemology: how different individuals view our world |
| How to gather data? | 1) data collection and analysis should proceed at the same time 2) focus on certain aspects of the setting 3) Awareness of setting, age, and gender |
| Common mistakes in ethnography | 1) only observing what you feel is important from your perspective 2) assuming what is true for your culture must be true for the group you are observing 3) coming to conclusions too quickly |
| Triangulation | The use of more than one method or source of data in the study phenomena so that finds may be cross checked |
| Report Format Ethnography | Report Format Introduction: social relevance and research question Methodology: describe role, setting and observation periods Results/Analysis Conclusion Appendices: field notes |
| Qualitative interviewing | - less structured - participants viewpoint - encourages rambling - aim to understand rather than generalize |
| Types of qualitative interviews | 1) collective 2)unstructured 3)semi-structured |
| collective qualitative interview | in-depth interviews |
| unstructured | when researcher has few general topics and style of interview is a conversation eg. no written set down of questions, measuring sociability of students |
| semi structured: life history | - biographical eg. feelings of experiencing traumatic events |
| Semi Structured: oral history | specific event of the past eg. individual who experienced 9/11 want to add feelings or when children tuned into walking space |
| Dramaturgical | -in interview meaning is created by the interviewer and interviewee - understanding of what is going on can go beyond the words and sentence eg. body language, expressions, setting |
| Aide memoire | - used for unstructured - think about 4 certain types of topics eg. how people felt during 9/11, how it changed their world, how it changed them as an individual |
| Interview guide for semi-structured | - research question should not limit alternative - questioning is flexible, not leading - record fact sheet setting - use language of community |
| conducting the interview | - approach should be courtesy and respectful - have a good memory and be quick to respond - see if respondent has contradicted themselves - share the elements why you're conducting - be open, sensitive, approachable and controlling |
| Recording and Transcription | - allow yourself to listen to answers - downside of recording, for every one hour of interview takes 6 hours to transcribe - to increase transcribing, get food pedals to start stop recording |
| Formulating questions | - how would you describe - i've heard... |
| Common problems to interviewing | - close ended questions eg. did you take dog to health care? - asking to many questions eg. is dog healthy? what kind of health care? - asking either or questions eg. do you take your dog to vet regularly or as needed basis -solution |
| interviewing vs. participant observation | qualitative: reveals issues resistant to observation, less intrusive, more ethical participant observation: seeing through other's eyes, access to hidden activities, flexible and naturalistic |
| History of focus groups | 1956: "focus interview" shows first time it can be structured in a kind of 1950's-1980's: quantitative methods dominant and focus groups primarily market research 1980's to today: focus groups move to stand alone method, popular with academic research |
| What is a focus group? | - form of group interview - usually semi structured - several participants and moderator - individuals in social context - how are opinions expressed and modified through group discussions? |
| Use of focus groups | - to examine way people construct and organize knowledge - to understand why people hold certain views - to elicit wide range of view on topic - conducting market research - helpful in media and cultural studies |
| Issues in conducting a focus groups: number o groups | - get a diverse range of groups - 10-15 is the norm - continue to organize group until theoretical saturation |
| Issues: number of participants in focus group | - average number is 6-10 - too small= no group dynamic, but more info from participants, controversial topic - too large= not enough time, people have little impact on topic, |
| Issues: The role of the moderator | - bring the group of strangers together to a point where they're comfortable to discuss topics - allow participants to have free reign (semi structured) |
| Selecting participants in focus group | - eg: homeowners of ottawa= then look at renters or actual home owners |
| Focus groups: complementary group interaction | - cirriculum study could be complementary as there would be a diverse set of students - shows how these ideas are emerging or coming to a consensus |
| Focus groups: argumentative interactions | - more one sided and opinionated - eg. a discussion reviewing Carleton: student were rambling how universities need to set up more of an expectation and complaining how courses are not practical |
| Limitations of focus groups | - researcher has less control over proceedings - data is difficult to analyse - difficult to organize/risk of no shows - very time consuming to transcribe - groupthink: social desirability - potential to cause distress |
| Contemporary focus groups | view focus groups as a simulation of everyday discussion not an aggregate of individual opinion - critical of positivist approach - uses return to notion of opinion formation and media effects |
| Contemporary approach | - goal is to reveal meaning and how individuals negotiate these meanings - moderator is less controlling - there are natural settings for groups |
| Criticisms of focus groups | - focus groups not reliable or valid - people will say anything - different groups will produce different responses - people will argue position that won't actually have therefore not reliable |
| Evolution of focus groups | - focus groups generate discussion and reveal meanings and how they are negotiated - generate diversity and difference within and between groups - moved beyond Merton limitations which are positivist approaches |
| Types of coding interview content | 1. pattern coding 2. category construction 3. interaction, interplay relationship |
| Interview Coding: pattern | we naturally look for patterns in the natural world eg. how stars align in skies or how humans develop as patterns |
| Interview Content: category construction | - if we think of data as a house, we can categorize them - could be beliefs, attitudes, values, themes, emotions and actions in terms of transcript eg. room has a house for everyday living: kitchen for eating, bedrooms for sleeping |
| interview coding: interplay interrelationship | look at how categories interact and create meaning |
| Deductive reasoning | - drawing conclusions from evidence eg. if one says they don't like this class, from that language you can deduce if person would rate a class than someone who would rate a class lower than someone else |
| inductive reasoning | exploring and inferring particular reasoning. - if everyone felt they don't show up, they will overall will get a lower grade, you can inductively imagine what the outcome will be |
| abductive reasoning | when you are merely suggesting some plausible things that might happen - no evidence that university will make social science students take a research methods class but there may be some plausible implication in the future |
| Open Coding: process coding | - codes can be actual words, short terms form the transcript, actions, attitudes - just the interviewees words - uses gerunds: to learn= learning, motivate=motivating, hope=hoping |
| In vivo coding | code based on the language of the participant - select words or phrases that are significant or stand out then cluster into different clusters |
| Types of In Vivo coding | 1. Descriptive coding 2. values coding 3. Dramaturgical coding |
| descriptive coding | primarily nouns that summarize the data useful when you have mixed types of data - taking the nouns out of transcript itself and deciding we use the nouns that summarize actual data |
| Values Coding | identify the values, attitudes and beliefs of participants as shared or interpreted - values of education - values of knowledge |
| Dramaturgical Coding | analyse the characters in action, reaction and interaction - objective (obj) - conflicts (con) - tactics (tac) - attitudes (att) |
| Versus Coding | identifies the conflicts, struggles and power issues observed in social action reaction and interaction - men vs women - conservative vs liberal - faith vs logic |
| thematic coding | unlike codes which are single works or short phrases, themes are extended phrases or sentences that summarize the manifest and latent meanings of data - cluster the themes - analytic memo writing |
| Process Coding | interviewers words not included gerunds used such as: learn=learning hope=hoping |
| Difference between quantitative and qualitative | inductive vs deductive grounded theory emerging from data vs testable hypothesis participant view vs researcher view non deep meaning vs hard data |
| interpretivism | -subject's point of view of the social world - epistemology of quali. |
| constructionism | - ontological of quali - how individual creates meaning through identifying culture etc |
| objectivism | -ontological of quant. - study human behaviour as object |
| positivism | - scientific method, linear measurable data |
| linear process | - quantitative - straight process from theory to data |
| spiral process | -qualitative - ongoing process from data collection to comparing theories/theoretical sampling back to data collection |
| Two types of Triangulation | Hosti's coefficient intercode-reliability |
| Hosti's coefficient | universal coding manual everyone follows |
| Inter coder reliability | -if the coding manual and schedule are the same - consistency with other coders |
| Triangulation | use of more than one method to cross check finidngs |
| Criteria for Trustworthiness | Credibility= internal reliability transferability= external validity dependability= replicability confirmability= external validity |
| World War 2 effects in history of CA | propaganda posters |
| 70's of history of content analysis | Television as an effect |
| External reliability | degree to which a study can be replicated; different in this research because it is impossible to ‘freeze’ the social setting and circumstances of an initial study |
| Internal reliability | like inter-coder reliability; when there is more than one observer, they agree about what they see/hear |
| External validity | degree to which findings can be generalized across social settings; problem for qual because of its tendency to rely on case studies/small samples |
| Internal validity | when there’s a good match between the researcher’s observations and the theoretical ideas they develop |
| Open coding | breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, categorizing data |
| Selective | selecting core category, systematically relating it to other categories, validating those relationships and filling in categories that need further development |
| Manifest content | elements that are physically present and countable |
| What is counted in content analysis | o Words: frequency of certain words; connotations and styles of discourse o Subjects and themes: looking for underlying/latent content o Dispositions: seeing if the writer has certain value positions, bias, or ideologies |
| Convenience sampling (ethnography) | o sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand |
| jotted notes | on the fly as it is happening (written) |
| mental notes | things to develop in mind before observing |
| field notes | thick description of words, emotion, body langauge |
| analytic memos, | follow up to field notes - bridges gap between data and concepts - |
| History of ethnography | involved Gerard Muller and Bronislaw Maniloski |
| Gerard Muller | part of ethnography history - developed feedback from polar expeditions in Kamawatski - historian/geographer |
| Bronislaw Maniloski | - wrote argonauts in western pacific - used ethnography as anthropological method - studied tribes in papua new guinea |
| Kvale | - creator of interview guide |
| Kvale list of 9 questions | Introduction>follow up> probing> specifying> directing> indirect> structuring> direct> indirect> structuring> silence> interpreting |
| Intro question q | have you ever? |
| follow up q | what do you mean by that? yes? |
| probing q | can you say more about that |
| specifying q | how did george react to what you said? |
| direct q | are you happy with the way you look? |
| indirect q | what do people here think about Fox news? |
| structuring q | now i'd like to move on to a different topic |
| silence q | pause gives interviewee a chance to reflect and amplify answer |
| interpreting q | do you mean that your has changed from a leader to a follower |
| Kvales ten traits of interviewer | knowledgeable, structuring, clear, gentle, sensitive, open, steering, critical, remembering, interpreting , balanced, ethically sensitive, non judgemental |
| Limitations of focus groups | oResearcher has less control over proceedings oData are difficult to analyse oDifficult to organize / risk of no-shows oVery time consuming to transcribe oGroupthink’ – thinking a certain way because it is social desirable/appropriate |
| Ethics | rules for distinguishing right and wrong; broader than laws and often informal o Norms for conduct that distinguishes between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour *** do no harm is most important |
| Importance of ethics | o Promotes aims of research o Promotes values essential to collaborate work, and other moral and social values o Ensures researchers are accountable to public; helps build public support |
| History of ethics | o 1932-1972: Tuskegee syphilis study o 1939-1945: German research concentration camps o 1942-1945: Manhattan project o Declaration of Helsinki 1964 |
| o 1932-1972: Tuskegee syphilis study | Clinical study to study the natural progression of untreated syphilis in African American men who thought they were receiving free health care |
| o 1939-1945: German research concentration camps | a series of medical experiments on large numbers of concentration camp prisoners; they were subjected to various hazardous experiments |
| o 1942-1945: Manhattan project | project that produced the first atomic bombs during World War II; resulted in the atomic bomb attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki |
| o Declaration of Helsinki 1964 | set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation developed for the medical community by the World Medical Association |
| •In Canada, most research should comply with | o Canadian Sociological Association’s code of ethics o Canadian law like the Canadian charter of Rights and Freedoms o Research Ethics Board (REB) o Tricouncil Policy Statement (TCPS2) |
| • TCPS2: | ethical conduct for research involving humans 2010 (includes CIHR, NSERC, SSHRCC 2010); 3 core principles: respect for persons; concern for welfare; justice |
| • Respect for persons: | o Most fundamental principle of the three o Humans shouldn’t be treated as mere objects give free, informed, and ongoing consent; need a basic idea of what the study will entail including the risks and benefit |
| • Concern for welfare: | o Covers the well-being of the person/group/community affected by research, Fair assessment of risks and benefits to individuals involved identities of participants remains private |
| Springdale Case | researcher stayed in the neighborhood 'Springdale' for 2.5 years, studying the people there and assured them anonymity, but that wasn't the case because it was easy to identify the individuals |
| Tearoom Trade, 1970 | an analysis of homosexual acts taking place in public toilets; because the researcher misrepresented his identity and intent and because the privacy of the subjects was infringed during the study, it’s a controversial social research |
| • Justice | o Idea that the burdens and benefits of research should be spread evenly across society o No person or group should be exploited in the research process or systematically excluded from its benefits; there’s always risk for disadvantaged group Tuskegee) |
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matsang
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