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AP Psych Chapter 7
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Clive Wearing | British keyboardist who suffers from chronic anterograde and retrograde amnesia. He lacks the ability to form new memories, and also cannot recall aspects of his past memories, frequently believing that he has only recently awoken from a coma. |
| Richard Atkinson | Proposed that we form memories in three stages (sensory, short-term, and long-term). |
| Alan Baddeley | Discovered that working memory associates new and old information and solves problems |
| Fergus Craik | To compare visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding, they flashed a word at people then asked a question that required the viewers to process the word at one of three levels. Semantic won. |
| Hermann Ebbinghaus | German philosopher that discovered the principle: The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning. He did this by trying to memorize a list like JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX, SUJ etc... |
| Eric Kandel | Observed changes in the sending of neurons of a simple animal, the California sea slug, Aplysia. They learned that given increased activity in a particular pathway, neural interconnections form or strengthen. |
| Jeffrey Karpicke | Nicknamed the "Testing Effect" saying that spaced study and self-assessment beat cramming. |
| Karl Lashley | Demonstrated that memories do not reside in single, specific spots by removing a chunk of brain from rats and they could still run the maze they had previously remembered. |
| Elizabeth Loftus | Believed that the seeming flashbacks appeared to have been invented not relived. |
| H.M. Henry Molaison | An American memory disorder patient who removed parts of his brain in an attempt to cure his epilepsy. |
| Rajan Mahadevan | A psychologist with an amazing memory that given a block of 10 digits from the first 30,000 or so digits of pi and he can start firing numbers from there like a machine gun. |
| George Miller | He enshrined our short-term recall capacity as the Magical Number Seven, plus or minus two. |
| Henry Rodiger | Nicknamed the "Testing Effect" saying that spaced study and self-assessment beat cramming. |
| Oliver Sacks | Neurologist that had a patient named Jimmie who could not remember (like the girl from 50 first dates) |
| Daniel Schacter | Came up with seven ways our memories fail us- the seven sins of memory. |
| James Shiffrin | Proposed that we form memories in three stages (sensory, short-term, and long-term). |
| George Sperling | Asked subjects to try to remember 9 letters that were flashed at them for less than a second they could recall them using iconic memory. |
| Endel Tulving | To compare visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding, they flashed a word at people then asked a question that required the viewers to process the word at one of three levels. Semantic won. |
| James Schwartz | Observed changes in the sending of neurons of a simple animal, the California sea slug, Aplysia. They learned that given increased activity in a particular pathway, neural interconnections form or strengthen. |
| Noam Chomsky | Linguist that believes children have a built-in readiness to learn grammar rules, this explains why preschoolers acquire language so readily and use grammar so well. |
| Daniel Kahneman | Researched the representativeness and availability heuristics showed how these generally helpful shortcuts can lead even the smartest people into dumb decisions. (poetry lover- truck driver or professor) |
| Wolfgang Kohler | A psychologist that demonstrated in an experiment with a chimpanzee and a short stick used to reach a long stick used to obtain fruit. Showed Insight. |
| Wallace Lambert | Thinks that increased word power helps explain the bilingual effect stating that bilingual children, who learn to inhibit one language while using the other, are also better able to inhibit their attention to irrelevant information. |
| Steven Pinker | Cognitive scientist that thinks language is the jewel in the crown of cognition. |
| Dean Keith Simonton | After studying the careers of 2026 prominent scientists and inventors he noted that the most eminent among them were mentored, challenged, and supported by their relationships with colleagues. (creative environment) |
| B.F. Skinner | Behaviorist that believed we can explain language development with familiar principles, such as association, imitation, and reinforcement. |
| Robert Sternberg | Identified 5 components of creativity. (Expertise, Imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and a creative environment) |
| Shelley Taylor | Conducted an experiment with her students. Had one group visualize getting an A on the exam and one group visualize studying. The group that visualized studying did better. |
| Amos Tversky | Researched the representativeness and availability heuristics showed how these generally helpful shortcuts can lead even the smartest people into dumb decisions. (poetry lover- truck driver or professor) |
| Peter Wason | He demonstrated the confirmation bias by giving British university students the three number series 2-4-6 and asking them to guess the rule he had used to devise the series. |
| Benjamin Lee Whorf | Linguist that contended that language determines the way we think. According to his linguistic determination hypothesis, different languages impose different conceptions of reality. |
| Memory | The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. |
| Encoding | The processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning. |
| Storage | The retention of encoded information over time. |
| Retrieval | The process of getting information out of memory storage. |
| Sensory Memory | The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. |
| Short-term Memory | Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. |
| Long-term Memory | The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
| Working Memory | A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. |
| Parallel Processing | The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. |
| Automatic Processing | Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. |
| Effortful Processing | Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
| Rehearsal | The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. |
| Spacing Effect | The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study of practice. |
| Serial Position Effect | Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. |
| Visual Encoding | The encoding of picture images. |
| Acoustic Encoding | The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words. |
| Semantic Encoding | The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words. |
| Imagery | Mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. |
| Mnemonics | Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. |
| Chunking | Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. |
| Iconic Memory | A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. |
| Echoic Memory | A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. |
| Long term potentiation (LTP) | An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be neural basis for learning and memory. |
| Flashbulb Memory | A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. |
| Amnesia | The loss of memory. |
| Implicit Memory | Retention independent of conscious recollection. |
| Explicit Memory | Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." |
| Hippocampus | A neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. |
| Recall | A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. |
| Recognition | A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. |
| Relearning | A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. |
| Priming | The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. |
| Deja Vu | That eerie sense that "I've experience this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. |
| Mood Congruent Memory | The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. |
| Proactive Interference | The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. |
| Retroactive Interference | The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. |
| Repression | In psychoanalytic theory, the basis defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. |
| Misinformation Effect | Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. |
| Source Amnesia | Attributing to the wrong source and event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. This, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. |
| Cognition | The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. |
| Concept | A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. |
| Prototype | A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a quick prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories. (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). |
| Algorithm | A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error-prone use of heuristics. |
| Heuristic | A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. |
| Insight | A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. |
| Creativity | The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. |
| Confirmation Bias | A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. |
| Fixation | The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set. |
| Mental Set | A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. |
| Functional Fixedness | The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving. |
| Representativeness Heuristic | Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. |
| Availability Heuristic | Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. |
| Overconfidence | The tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements. |
| Belief Perseverance | Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. |
| Intuition | An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. |
| Framing | The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements. |
| Language | Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning. |
| Phoneme | In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. |
| Morpheme | In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix). |
| Grammar | In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. |
| Semantics | The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning. |
| Syntax | The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. |
| Babbling Stage | Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. |
| One Word Stage | The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. |
| Two Word Stage | Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements. |
| Telegraphic Speech | Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-"go car"-using mostly nouns and verbs. |
| Linguistic Determinism | Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think |
Created by:
gabby.linn