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FPSYCH
Developmental Theories
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Motor Development | The progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities. |
| Cephalocaudal trend | The head-to-foot progression of motor development. |
| What is one example of the cephalocaudal trend? | Infants gradually shift from using their arms to move themselves to using their legs. |
| Proximodistal trend. | Center-outward direction of motor development. |
| One example of proximodistal? | Infants shift from reaching for things by twisting their entire body to extending just their arms. |
| Maturation | Development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint. |
| What has research about the process of motor development suggested? | Infants are active agents rather than passive organism wainting for their brain and limbs to mature. Progress in motor development is atttributed to infants' experimentation and learning the consequences of their activities. |
| Developmental norms. | The typical most common (median) age at which individuals display various behaviours and bailities. |
| Give examples of how culture affects motor development. | special practice in basic motor skills = rapid motor development. Kipsigis Kenya train infants to sit up, stand and walk -> develop one month earlier Discourage motor development etc. Ache Paraguay: mothers carry infants everywhere - walk a year later |
| Temperament | Characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity. |
| Longitudinal design | Investigators observe one group of participants repeatedly over a period of time |
| Cross-sectional designg | Investigators compare groups of participants of differing age at a single point in time. |
| What are the advantages and disadvatages of longitudinal and cross-sectional studies? | Longitudinal desings tend to be more sensitive to developmental changes, but cross-sectional studies can be completed more quickly, easily and cheaply. |
| Cohort effects | Differences between age groups are due to the groups growing up in different time periods |
| In Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess' longitudinal studies, they identified 3 basic types of temperaments in children. What are these temparements? | Easy, slow to warm up, and difficult |
| Easy temperament | Happy, regular in sleep and eating, adaptable and not readily upset. 40% of children. |
| Slow to warm up temperament | Less cheery, less regular in sleep and eating and slower in adapting to change. 15% of children |
| Difficult temperament | Tendency to be glum, erratic in sleep and eating, resistant to change and relatively irritable |
| What did Jerome Kagan and his colleagues find in temperament research? | Inhibited and uninhibited temperament. |
| Inhibited temperament | Shyness, timidity and wariness of unfamiliar people - 15% to 20% |
| Uninhibited temperament | Less restrained, approaching unfamiliar people with litttle trepidation - 25 - 30% |
| How does nature and nurture come into temperament? | Individual differences in temperament appear to be influenced to a considerable degree by heredity but it is not unchangeable and cultural differences affect in the prevalence of specific temperamental styles |
| Attachment | Close-emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers. |
| Why are the infants first important attachment always the mother? | The mother is the main caregiver |
| Seperation anxiety | Emotional distress seen in many infants when they are seperated from people with whom they have formed an attachment. |
| What didd Harry Harlow find in his studies of attachment in infant rhesus monkeys? | He found that the young monkey scrambled for their cloth mothers who had provided contact confort (cloth for skin) even if they were not fed by them |
| John Bowlby's alternative explanation of atttachment influenced by evolutionary theoru | There must be a biological basis for attachment. Infants are biologically programmed to emit behaviour that triggers an affectionate protective response from adults who are in turn programmed to be captivated by this behavior and respond with protection |
| Mary Ainsworth's Strange situation procedure | Infants are exposed to a series of eight separation and reunion episodes to assess the quality of their attachment |
| What did Mary Ainsworth find in her studies with the strange situation? | Attachments fall into three categories: secure, anxious-ambivalnet and avoidant. Maternal behaviours also appear to have considerable influence over the type of attachment that emerges between an infant and mother. |
| Secure attachment | Play comfortably with mother preset, become visibly upset when she leaves and are quickly calmed by her return. |
| Anxious-ambivalent atttachment | Anxious even when mother is near and protest excessively when she leaves but they are not comforted when she returns |
| Avoidant attachment | Seek little contact with their mothers and often are not distressed when she leaves |
| Disorganized-disoriented attachment | Appear confused about whether they should approach or avoid their mother - especially insecure |
| Mothe s who are sesitive and responsive to their children''s needs are more likely to promote which attachment? | Secure attachments. |
| How do infants influence attachment? | They influence the process with their crying, smiling, fussinng and babbling. Temperamentally difficult infants who spit up their food and fight may slow process of attachment. |
| How does attachment influence children's development? | Children develop internal working models of the dynamics of close relationships that influence their future interactions with a wide range of people. Secure attachments tend to become resilient etc. They also have more advanced cognitive development |
| How is Erik Erikson's personality theory similar to and different from Freud's? | He agreed that events in early childhood leave a permanent stamp on adult personality but he theorized that personality continues to evolve over entire life span. |
| What is a stage, as in Erik Erikson's stage theory of personality development? | A developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited and certain capacities become established. |
| What are the three assumptions of stage theories? | 1. Individuals must progress through stages in order as each stage builds on previous stage. 2. Progress in stages is related to age 3. There are major discontinuities between stages in typical behaviour. |
| What is a psychosocial crisis in Erikson's stage theory? | A crucial turning point. |
| What is the mechanism of Erikson's stage theory? | Personality is shaped by how individuals deal with crises that involve transitions in important social relationships. Each stage is a tug of war that dermines subsequent balance between opposing polarities in personality. |
| What are the first 4 stages of Erikson's stage theory? | 1. Trust vs mistrust 2. Autonomy vs shame and self doubt 3. Initiative vs guilt 4. Industry vs confusion |
| What is the trust vs mistrust stage in Erikson's stage theory? | First year of life. An infant has to depend completely on adults to take care of its basic needs. If needs are met and sound attachments are formed -> develop optimistic trusting attitude towards world. If not -> more distrusting, pessimistic |
| What is the autonomy vs shame and doubt stage in Erikson's stage theory? | 2nd and 3rd years. Child must begin to take personal responsibility for feeding, dressing and bathing. If good -> acquire sense of autonomy. If parets are never satisfied, conflicts -> develop sense of personal shame and self-doubt |
| Initiative vs guilt stage | Age 3 - 6. Children experiment and take initiatives that conflict with parent's rules. If good -> children retain initiative but learn to respect the rights and privileges of other family members. If overcontrolling -> guilt, self-esteem suffers |
| Industry vs Inferiority | Age 6 - puberty. Children have to function socially beyond the family to broader social realm of the neighborhood and school. Children who are able to function -> learn to value accomplishment and take pride in it. If not -> develop sense of inferiority |
| What are the strengths of Erikson's stage theory? | Accounts for both continuity and transition @ personality development: shows how challenges stimulate personality development throughout life (transition), draws connections between early childhood experiences and aspects of adult personality (continuity) |
| What are the weaknesses of Erikson's stage theory? | Depends heavily on illustrative case studies which are open to varied interpretations Provides an "idealized" description of "typical" developmental patterns -> not well suited to explain enormous personality differences that exist among people |
| Cognitive development | Transitions in youngster's pattern of thinkin |
| Jean Piaget's stage theory of development | Progress through 4 major stages: 1. Sensorimotor period (birth to age 2) 2. Preoperational period (ages 2 to 7) 3. Concrete operation period (ages 7 to 11) 4. Formal operational period (11 onward) |
| Sensorimotor period - Jean Piaget | Developing of ability to coordinate their sensory input with motor actions Gradual appearance of symbolic thought Transition from behaviour dominated by innate reflexes to using mental symbols to represent objects Acquiring object permanence |
| Object permanence | Child recognises that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible First signs appear between 4 and 8 months, not mastered until 18 months old |
| Preoperational period - Jean Piaget | Children improve in use of mental images but there are still flaws Flaws in preoperation thinking - Centration, irreversibilty and egocentrism (contains animis) Unable to solve problems with principle of conservation |
| Centration | Tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, ignoring other important aspects |
| Irreversibility | Inability to envision reversing an action |
| Egocentrism | Limited ability to share another person's viewpoint |
| Animism | Belief that all things are living |
| Concrete operational period | Children can perform operations only on images of tangible objects and actual events Overcome flaws in preoperational thinking Decline in egocentrism and mastery of conservation Can handle hierarchical classification (categorizing) problems |
| Formal operational period | Children begin to apply mental operations to abstract concepts Enjoy thinking about abstract concepts Thought processes relatively systematic, logical and reflective Further development inn thinking are changes in degree than nature |
| Failings of Jean Piaget's stage theory | 1. Underestimated young children's cognitive development 2. Children often simultaneously display thinking patterns of thinking characteristic of several stages "mixing", transitions are gradual 3. Underestimate importance of environment (timetable) |
| Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory | Children's cognitive development is fueled by social interactions with older peeps who can provide invaluable guidance Culture exerts great influence over how cognitive growth unfold Language acquisition plays a crucial role in cognitive development |
| Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory mechanism | Children acquire most of their culture's cognitive skills and problem-solving strats through collaborative dialogues (apprenticeship) Use of private speech to plan strats, regulate actions and accomplish goals -> language is foundation for cognition |
| Innate cognitive abilities? | Infants seem to exhibit surprisingly sophisticated numerical abilities; certain basic cognitive abilities hardwired into neural architecture "Number sense" - adding objects behind screen |
| Understanding of false beliefs | Children under 4 do not appreciate that people ca hold false beliefs that do not accurately reflect reality |
| Milestones in children's understanding of mental states | Age 2- Children begin to distinguish between mental states and overt behaviour - understand emotions and desires Age 4 - begin to understand how people's beliefs thoughts and desires motivate and direct behaviour Age 3 -4 - understand false beliefs |
| Kohlberg's stage theory of moral development | Moral development is determined by cognitive development Focuses on moral reasoning than overt behaviour Comprises 6 stages and 3 level: Punishment, Naive reward, Good boy/girl, Authority, Social contract and individual principles and conscience |
| Punishment orientation - Kohlberg | What is wrong is what is punished |
| Naive reward orientation - Kohlberg | What is right is what is rewarded |
| Good boy/good girl orientation - Kohlerg | What is right is what wins approval from others |
| Authority orientation - Kohlberg | What is right and wrong is determined by society's rules and laws which should be obeyed rigidly |
| Social contract orientation - Kohlberg | What is right and wrong is determined by society's rules, but society is fallible rather than absolute |
| Individual principles and conscience orientation | Right and wrong is determined by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equity and justice |
| Preconventional level - Kohlberg | Comprises punishment and naive reward orientation Moral thinking is in terms of external authority |
| Conventional level - Kohlberg | Comprises good boy/good girl and authority orientations Moral reasoning sees rules as necessary for maintaining social order |
| Postconventional level - Kohlberg | Comprises social contract and individual principles and conscience orientations Moral reasoning is working out a personal code of ethics; acceptance of rules is less rigid and moral thinking shows some flexibility and understanding of context |
| Criticisms of Kohlberg's theory | 1. "Mixing" of levels in moral reasoning 2. Culture-specific: reflects the liberal, individualistic ideology of Western nations 3. Ignores other aspects of moral development: empathy, conscience, helping behaviour and moral emotions (shame, guilt) |
| Adolescent growth spurt | At age 10 in girls and 12 in boys |
| Pubescence | Two-year span preceding puberty during which changes leading to physical and sexual maturity take place. |
| Secondary sex characteristics | Physical features that distinguish one sex from the other but that are not essential for reproduction. |
| Secondary sex characteristics in males and females | Male: Voice change, facial hair and greater skeletal and muscle growth in upper torso leading to broader shoulders. Female: Breast growth and a widening of pelvic bones plus increased fat deposits in this area leading to wider hips. |
| Puberty | Stage in which sexual functions reach maturity, which marks the beginning of adolescence. |
| Primary sex characteristics | Structures necessary for reproduction. Male: Testes, penis etc Female:Ovaries, vagina etc |
| Menarche | First occurence of menstruation. Age 12-13 until age 16. |
| Spermache | First experience of ejaculation. Age 13-14 to age 18. |
| Generational changes in timing of puberty | Puberty now begins at a younger age, and it is completed more rapidly. This is due to widespread improvements in nutrition and medical care. |
| Timing of puberty and effects | Late maturation leads to more distress and emotional difficulty with transition to adolescence. However, early maturation is correlated with greater use of alcohol and drugs, high risk behaviour, aggression and deliquency. |
| Prefrontal cortex is last to mature. What implications does this have? | The prefrontal cortex is cruicial to high-level cognitive functions. Thus, it may explain why risky behaviour peaks during adolescence and then declines in adulthood. |
| Synaptic pruning | The elimination of less-active synapses. |
| Marcia's theory | In adolescence and into adulthood, there is a struggle to form a clear identity. This struggle entails the presence or absence of sense of commitment to values and a sense of crisis (questioning), which combine to form 4 different identity statuses |
| The 4 identity statuses | Identity diffusion: no crisis, no commitment Identity moratorium: crisis, no commitment Identity foreclosure: commitment, no crisis Iddntity achievement: commitment and crisis |
| Identity diffusion (4 ISs) | A state of apathy, with no commitment to an ideology. |
| Identity foreclosure (4 ISs) | Premature commitment to visions, values and roles--usually from parents |
| Identity moratorium (4 ISs) | Active struggling for a sense of identity: experimenting with alternative ideologies and careers. |
| Identity achievement (4 ISs) | Arriving at a sense of self and direction; identity. It is associated with higher self esteem, conscientiousness, achievement motivation and capacity for intimacy |
| Are Marcia's identity stasuses stages that people pass through or stable individual dispositions? | Both. Identity stasuses are a relatively stable trait in 63% of individuals, but transitions that were seen were mostly shifts to a more progressive stage. People also tend to reach identity achievement at later ages than predicted. |
| Jeffrey Arnett's emerging adulthood | Age 18-25 are a new transitional stage of life. 1. People here don't see themselves as either adults or adolescentes. 2. Age of possibilities 3. Self-focused time of life, without commitments etc. 4. Often a period of identity formation |
| Trends in personality growth | People's relative standing doesn't tend to change much. However, extroversion, neuroticism and opennesss to experience tend to decline while agreeableness, conscie tiousness and self-esteemm tends to rise. |
| Erikson's stage theory continued | Adolescence - Identity vs confusion: "who am i, where am i going? early adulthood - Intimacy vs Isolation: "share or live alone?" middle - Generativity vs self-absorption: "create?" late - integrity vs despair: "have i lived a full life?" |
| Early adulthood - Intimacy vs Isolation (Erikson's stage theory) | The challenge is whether can development the capacity to share intimacy with others. If good: promote empathy and openness |
| Middle adulthood - Generativity vs self-absorption (Erikson's stage theory | The challenge is to acquire a genuine concern for the welfare of future gernations. If good: provide unselfish guidance to younger people and concern with one's legacy. |
| Late adulthood - Integrity vs Despair (Erikson's stage theory) | The challenge is to avoid the tendency to dwell on past mistakes and imminent death. Need to fin meaning and satisfaftion in their lives than wallow in bitterness and despair. |
| Why is the transitional period during which young adults have not yet formed a new family becoming longer? | Availability of new career options for women, increased educational requirements in the world of work, and increased emphasis on personal autonomy. |
| Findings on cohabitation | Cohabitations had higher rates of divorce until 1988, when the trend reversed. However, changes in the composition of the population of people who cohabit may be altering the effect of cohabitation. |
| Sources of conflict in marriages | Career commitments: although more and more womeen want demanding careers, husbands' careers continue to take priority over their wives', and husbands maintain traditional role expectations about housework: wives still do bulk of housework. |
| Adjusting to parenthood | Arrival of child can be emotionally draining, and impacts mothers more. It is also more difficult when wife's expectations of father involvement are not met. This accounts for a sudden deterioration in relationship quality. |
| Changes in parent-child relationships | When children reach adolescents and wish to form their own identities, realignments occur. Adolescents spend less time in family activities, and conflicts become more frequent (over everyday matters), leading to decline in closeness with parents. |
| Empty nest syndrome | Children leave the home. Parents actually adapt well: marital satisfaction rises as wives enjoy their time with husbands. |
| Physical changes in old age | 1. Hair thins out and becomes gray 2. Proportion of body fat tends to increase, muscle tissue decreases 3. Weight tends to increase 4. Negative effect on how attractive people think they are |
| Feeling younger than one's real age in old age | Elderly people often report feeling younger. This is associated with better health and cognitive functioning and reduced mortality rate. |
| Visual and hearing changes in old age | -People with 20/20 visual acuity declines -Far-sightedness etc becomes more common -Hearing sensitivity declines; greater in men than in women Losses put a greater burden on cognitive processing |
| Menopause | Ending of maternal period, accompanied by loss of fertility, ay about age 50. Symptoms incluse hot flashes, headaches, night sweats, mood changes, sleep difficulties ,reduced sex drive, and elevated risk of depression. |
| Neural changes in | |
| Neural changes in late adulthood | 1. Brain tissue and brain's weight declines gradually; decrease in number of active neurons and shrinkage of existing neurons 2. Increase in prevalence of dementias |
| Dementia | Abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive deficts that include memory impairment. |
| Alzheimer's disease | 1. Accounts for 70% of all dementia 2. Marked by widespread loss of neurons and brain tissue and the accumulation of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the hippocampal region 3. After age 65, progresses over 8-10 years before death |
| Symptoms of alzheimer's disease | 1. Forgetting of newly learned information 2. Impairments of working memory, attention and executive function 3. Failire to recognize familiar people, become completely disoreinted and unable to care for themselves. |
| Causes and preventive factors of alzheimers | Causes: Genetic factors and chronic inflammation Protective: Regular exercise (lower cardiovadcular risk e.g. high blood pressure), stimulating cognitive activities and active social engagements with friends and family |
| Fluid intelligence | Basic reasoning ability, memory capacity and speed of information processing |
| Crystallised intelligence | Ability to apply acquired knowledge and skills in problem solving |
| Trend of intelligence over age | Flyid intelligence is much more likely to decline with age, whereas crystallised intelligence tends to remain stable |
| Trends of memory over age | Two theories: 1. Memory losses are moderate and not experienced by everyone 2. Memory losses are drastic, begin in early adulthood as opposed to old age, and affect everyone |
| "Use it or lose it" hypothesis | The hypothesis that high levels of mental activity can delay age-related declines. Evidence says that it is a mixed bag: changes if any are small. |
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