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AP_Unit 8A
Motivation
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Motivation | A need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour toward a goal. |
| Instinct | A complex, unlearned, and fixed pattern of behaviour common to all members of a species. Emphasizes the importance of genetic predispositions. Critics of instinct theory highlight that it simply names rather than explains behaviour. |
| Drive-Reduction Theory | The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy a need. |
| Homeostasis | A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state. The regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. The goal of drive reduction. “Staying the same.” |
| Incentive | A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behaviour. The role of learning in motivation is from the influence of incentives. |
| Need | A physiological state that usually triggers motivational arousal. |
| Drive | An aroused or activated state that is often triggered by a physiological need. |
| Optimal Arousal | Motivated behaviours actually increase arousal. People are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal. |
| Yerkes-Dodson Law | The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. |
| Hierarchy of Needs | Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. |
| Self-Transcendence | The needs for purpose and meaning that lie beyond the self. Maslow suggested that self-transcendence needs motivate people to strive for transpersonal meaning. |
| Minnesota Starvation Experiment | Study designed to determine the physiological and psychological effects of prolonged dietary restriction. Observed that men on a semi-starvation diet lost interest in sex and social activities. |
| A.L. Washburn | Swallowed a balloon. When inflated, the balloon filled his stomach and transmitted his stomach contractions to a recording device. Found that hunger pangs/stomach contractions accompany feelings of hunger. |
| Glucose | The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major sources of energy for body tissues. When its level is low we feel hunger. Increases in blood glucose decrease hunger. Regulated by insulin secretions of the pancreas. |
| Lateral Hypothalamus | The portion of the hypothalamus that controls hunger. Damage to this area can cause reduced food intake due to loss of appetite. Stimulation of this area can increase appetite. |
| Ventromedial Hypothalamus | The portion of the hypothalamus that is responsible for the feeling of satiation or fullness after eating. Damage to this area can cause overeating and obesity. |
| Orexin | Produced by the lateral hypothalamus. A hunger triggering hormone. |
| Insulin | Produced by the pancreas. A rise in blood glucose after meals stimulates the secretion of insulin. Insulin suppresses appetite by acting on the brain. |
| Ghrelin | Produced by the stomach wall. Triggers feelings of hunger as mealtimes approach. In dieters who lose weight, ghrelin levels increase which makes it hard to stay on a diet. |
| Obestatin | Produced by the stomach. A hunger suppressing hormone. |
| Leptin | Produced by adipose tissue. Suppresses appetite as its level increases. When body fat decreases, leptin levels fall and appetite increases. |
| PYY | Produced by the small intestine. Secreted after meals, acts as an appetite suppressant that counters the appetite stimulant ghrelin. |
| Set Point | The specific body weight maintained automatically by most adults over long periods of time. The concept of set point illustrates an explanation of motivation in terms of homeostasis. |
| Basal Metabolic Rate | The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. |
| Settling Point | Some researchers prefer the term settling point to set point because the typical body weight of an adult is influenced by environmental and biological factors. |
| Memory (Eating) | One part of our decision to eat is our memory of the time of our last meal. |
| Carbohydrates (Taste Preference) | The level of serotonin in the brain is increased by a diet high in carbohydrates. Carbohydrates reduce tension and anxiety. |
| Sweet vs. Salty (Taste Preference) | People’s preferences for sweet tastes are universal and their preferences for excessively salty tastes are learned. |
| Learning (Taste Preference) | A violent illness following our eating of a food, influences our taste preferences. Taste preferences are influenced by learning experiences. |
| Spice (Taste Preference) | Recipes commonly used in countries with hot climates are more likely to include spices than those in countries with colder climates. |
| Neophobia | People’s dislike of novel foods. |
| Social Facilitation (Eating) | People tend to eat much more in social situations, such as parties and celebrations. |
| Unit Bias | When encouraged to eat as much as they want, people tend to eat less if the foods are offered in smaller rather than larger portion sizes. |
| Obesity | The World Health Organization identifies obesity as a high body mass index of 30 or more. Whenever people face famine, obesity is a sign of a high social status. New research has linked women’s obesity to their risk of late-life Alzheimer’s disease. |
| Obesity (Prejudice) | Observers perceive fatter people as less sincere and less friendly. Research participants’ willingness to hire applicants revealed greater discrimination against overweight women than against overweight men. |
| Fat | No matter how carefully people diet, they never lose fat cells. Fat cells increase in number as a result of adult overeating patterns. Once we become fat, we require less food to maintain our weight than we did to attain it. |
| Obesity (Weight Loss) | Obese people may struggle to lose weight with a low calorie diet because they may have a higher than average set point for body weight. Research suggests that three or four weeks of sustained dieting leads to a lower resting metabolic rate. |
| Obesity (Causes) | The weight of adoptive people correlates with that of their biological parents. The gene FTO the nearly doubles the risk of obesity. Sleep deprivation increase vulnerability to obesity. Social and cultural factors influence obesity. |
| The Sexual Response Cycle | The four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson – excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. |
| Refractory Period | A resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. |
| Orgasm | Female orgasm increases the likelihood of conception. Enough sperm may be released prior to male orgasm to enable conception. The experience of orgasm is the same for both sexes. |
| Sexual Dysfunction | A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal and functioning. Erectile disorder (inability to have or maintain an erection) and premature ejaculation. Female orgasmic disorder (distress over infrequently or never experiencing orgasm). |
| Paraphilias | Experience sexual arousal but direct it in unusual ways (exhibitionism, fetishism, and pedophilia) . |
| Estrogens | Sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. Estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. |
| Testosterone | The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. |
| Reducing Sex Drive | Research indicates that adult males who suffer castration experience a decline in their sex drive. Male sex offenders lose much of their sexual urge when voluntarily taking Depo-Provera. |
| Viewing Erotic Material | Viewing women who seem to enjoy being sexually coerced can lead people to be more willing to hurt women. Viewing images of sexually attractive women and men may lead people to devalue their own partners and relationships. |
| Insecure Anxious Attachment | Constantly craving acceptance but remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection. The result of repeated disrupted attachments during childhood leads to difficulty forming deep attachments. |
| Insecure Avoidant Attachment | Adults who were insecurely attached as children can use strategies to maintain their distance from others because they feel discomfort over getting close to others. |
| Ostracism | Deliberately being left out of a social group or social setting by exclusion and rejection. |
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