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Physics- Unit 1
SMITHSONIAN SUPERSIMPLE PHYSICS- Unit 1- Working Scientifically
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Scientific Method | 1. Ask a scientific question 2.Make a Hypothesis 3. Make a Prediction 4. Collect Data 5. Analysis and Conclusion 6. Peer Review 7. Theory |
| Heliocentric Model | With observations from his only his eyes, Nicolaus Copernicus, the Polish astronomer created a new model. This model has the Sun at the center (heliocentric) and planets moving around it in circular motions. |
| Geocentric Model | The Greek astronomer Ptolemy based his geocentric model of the solar system on the idea that the Earth is the center of the solar system. Geocentric means Earth is in the middle. |
| Telescope | After the telescope was created in the early 1600s, the Italian scientist Galileo discovered mountains and craters on the moon and four moons orbiting Jupiter. His observations support the heliocentric model. |
| Elliptical Orbits | Around 80 years after Nicolaus Copernicus died, German astronomer Johannes Kepler had the idea of a heliocentric model with elliptical (oval) orbits instead of circular ones. This matched the movement of the planets way better than the original ideas. |
| Observing The Skies | The first known people to study the night sky were the people of Mesopotamia (now Iraq), around 5,000 years ago. Ancient astronomers used simple instruments, like quadrants, to measure the stars and planets and to predict when the Sun would rise and set. |
| Theory of Gravity | Loosely inspired by Kepler's elliptical orbits, the English scientist Isaac Newton published a book that included his laws of gravity and motion. These mathematical models help explain how the planets orbit the Sun and how moons orbit planets. |
| Reflecting Telescope | Isaac Newton also invented the reflecting telescope, which uses a curved mirror instead of lenses. |
| Better Telescopes | German born astronomer William Herschel discovered Uranus using a 39 foot long telescope. He also identified a lot of nebulas- clouds of glowing material among the stars. William Herschel built his giant telescope with his sister Caroline Herschel. |
| Discovering Galaxies | In 1912, American astronomer Henrietta Swan Leavitt figured out a way of calculating the distance from Earth to variable stars- stars whos brightness varies. |
| Discovering Galaxies (2) | In 1923, another American, Edwin Hubble, used her idea to demonstrate the existence of other galaxies beyond our own, revealing that the Universe was far bigger than anyone had realized. |
| Genetic Engineering | Genetic engineering can provide cures for diseases or alter crops to provide additional nutrients. These do bring benefits to many lives, but genetically modified organisms are not natural. |
| Biofuels | Biofuels are fuels made from crops. Burning these fuels reduces carbon dioxide emissions compared to burning fossil fuels, as the crops absorb carbon dioxide as they grow. |
| Clean Energy | Climate change happens from humans +ing 2 much carbon dioxide 2 the atmosphere. Tidal power makes electricity w/out making carbon dioxide, but this can involve building a dam across a river estuary, stopping fish from migrating & changing natural habitats |
| Cheap Meat | Selective breeding can be used to produce farm animals that give better meat, cows that produce more milk, or hens that lay more eggs. However, changes that cut costs for farmers may be harmful to the animals. |
| Nuclear power or fossil fuels | Many people think nuclear power is dangerous cause the risk of accidents or radiation leaks. However, scientific studies suggest that fossil fuel power stations cause more illness and death through pollution, as well as contributing more to climate change |
| Walk or Drive? | Accident statistics show that pedestrians suffer more accidents per mile than traveled than drivers. But, walking is a form of exercise, and exercise can greatly reduce your chance of getting illnesses such as heart disease and diabetes. |
| Flight Safety | Air crashes are always big news, and make some people afraid to fly. However, traveling by car is much more dangerous. For example, between 2000 and 2009, cars in the US were more than 100 times more likely to have a fatal accident, than airlines. |
| X-rays | X-ray machines and CT scanners show images of the inside of the body, helping doctors diagnose disease, but these technologies expose living tissue to X-ray radiation, causing a very small increase in the risk of cancer. |
| Descriptive Models | These models use words and sometimes diagrams to describe something. |
| Computational Models | Computational models use computers to simulate complex processes. Weather forecasts are made using computational models of the atmosphere. |
| Galileo Galilei | He created the geometric & military compass. He also invented a balance for weighing objects in air & water. He discovered the 4 moons of Jupiter and wrote The Starry Messenger & Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. |
| Isaac Newton | He wrote a book called Principia. He was also elected to Parliament. He invented a form of Calculus. |
| Caroline Herschel | She discovered 14 previously unknown nebulae & star clusters & 2 new galaxies in 1783. On December 21, 1786 she discovered "The Lady's Comet". She became the first professional woman scientist, found 7 more comets, & earned the title "Hunter of Comets". |
| Henrietta Swan Leavitt | She helped discover the first accurate way of measuring great distances in space. She was also born on July 4th. |
| Mathematical Models | These are models that use equations to represent what happens in the real world. For example, a mathematical equation can model the fall in temperature as a hot object transfers heat to its surroundings. |
| Spatial Models | A spatial model shows how things are arranged in three-dimensional space, such as the way the parts of our ears fit together. |
| Representational Models | These models use simplified shapes and symbols to represent more complex objects in the real world. |
| Investigating Insulation | In the scientific method, you test a hypothesis (an idea) by carrying out an experiment. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so you might form a hypothesis that materials containing lots of trapped air will be good insulators. |
| Investigating Insulation (2) | To test this hypothesis, you could carry out an experiment like the one shown here. Three beakers of hot water are given different types of insulation, and the water temperature is measured regularly as the beakers cool down. |
| Dependent Variable | Is the water temperature. Measuring the temperature allows you to see if some kinds of insulation work better than others. Scientists collect data by measuring the dependent variable. |
| Independent Variable | Is the type of insulation. This is the thing you vary to look for an effect. Each beaker of hot water has a different kind of insulation (or none). |
| Control Variables | Include the water volume, its starting temperature, and the location of the beakers. These must be the same for every beaker to ensure a fair test. |
| The Planning Process | 1. Decide which variable you will deliberately change. 2.Decide which variable you'll measure to look for an effect. 3. Decide which variables you need to keep constant to ensure the test is fair. |
| The Planning Process (2) | 4. Make a list of all the equipment you'll need, including measuring instruments. 5. Plan the steps you'll take during the experiment in detail. 6. Decide what safety precautions you need to take and write them down. |
| Collecting Data | All experiments involve collecting data, which we use to see if a hypothesis is supported or not. Planning how and when to collect data is important. For this experiment, taking the temperature regularly allows you to create a graph of your results. |
| Measuring | Most experiments involve taking measurements of physical quantities, such as temperature, volume, mass, or time. To obtain accurate date, you need to use an instrument suited to the size of the quantity you are measuring. |
| Length and Distance | Use a tape measure to measure longer distances, such as when finding your walking speed over 10 meters. Use a ruler to measure the length of a small object. |
| Volume | Use a beaker or large measuring cylinder for measuring large volumes of liquid. Use a small measuring cylinder for small volumes of liquids. |
| Time | Use a stopwatch to measure periods of time greater than 10 seconds. Use an electronic timer to measure very small time intervals. |
| Electronic Instruments | Electronic instruments are often more accurate than manual versions. However, this doesn't always make them the best choice. They are more expensive and easier to damage, so they should only be used in experiments where greater accuracy is necessary. |
| Recording Data | The number of significant figures depends on on the measuring instruments you use. For instance, a ruler with a scale divided into centimeters gives fewer significant figures than a ruler with a scale divided into millimeters. |
| Recording Data (2) | Digital instruments often give more significant figures than traditional ones (but this doesn't necessarily mean they are more accurate). |
| Tables | Tables are useful for organizing data and for doing simple calculations, such as working out mean (average) values. This table shows results from an experiment investigating how mass added to a cart affects its acceleration. |
| Pie Charts | Use a pie chart to show percentages or or relative amounts. |
| Bar Charts | Use a bar chart when the independent variable is made up of discrete (separate) categories. |
| Line Graphs | Use a line graph when both axes show numerical values that vary continuously rather than dividing into discrete (separate) categories. Line graphs are often used when one of your variables is time. |
| Scatter Graphs | Use a scatter graph to investigate a relationship between two variables. This graph shows how the current through a resister and through a bulb varies when the voltage is changed. |
| Correlation | When two variables appear to be linked, we say they are correlated. Plotting a scatter graph of your data is a good way to spot correlations. A correlation between two variables doesn't show that one causes the other. |
| No Correlation | The data points are scattered around randomly and show no pattern. There is no correlation between the variables. |
| Weak Correlation | The points look as if they might be grouped around a diagonal line. The large scatter means this is only a weak relationship. |
| Strong Positive Correlation | The points form a diagonal line, showing that one variable increases as the other does. |
| Strong Negative Correlation | The line formed by these points shows that one variable decreases as the other increases. This is a negative correlation. |
| Linear | A correlation where the points form a straight line is described as linear. |
| Proportional | If the points form a straight through the origin (where x and y both equal zero), the relationship is described as proportional. This means if one variable doubles, so does the other. |
| Inversely Proportional | In an inversely proportional relationship, one variable halves when the other doubles. This forms a curved line. |
| Checking | To check whether a relationship is inversely proportional, plot one variable against the inverse of the other (1 divided by the value). The graph should be a straight ling through the origin. |
| An Incorrect Conclusion | The description is not detailed, and the graph does not show a proportional relationship, which would produce a straight line. |
| A Better Conclusion | The description has more detail and the final conclusion is correct. |
| An Excellent Conclusion | The description is much more detailed. The student has used their knowledge of the link between current, resistance, and voltage to suggest what may be causing the change in shape of the graph. |
| Inaccurate And Imprecise | The measurements are not always accurate, as they are not near the center of the target, and imprecise, as they are not close to each other. |
| Precise But Inaccurate | These measurements are precise because they are all nearly the same value, but they are inaccurate because they aren't close to the center. |
| Accurate But Imprecise | These are close to each other, so they are accurate but imprecise. |
| Accurate And Precise | These measurements are both accurate and precise. |
| Is The Experiment Valid? | Was it a fair test? Is it reproducible? Is it repeatable? Did it test the hypothesis? |
| Data Quality | Good data is accurate and precise, You can assess the quality of your data by repeating an experiment, but sometimes you can tell by looking carefully at the results. |
| Imprecise Data | The data points are scattered around the line of best fit. |
| Precise Data | The points are closer to the line. However, extension should be zero for zero weight, so it's odd that the line does not pass through the origin. There may be a systematic error causing inaccurate data. |
| Accurate And Precise Data | This data is very close to the line of best fit, and the line goes through the origin, as we expected. |
| Systematic Errors | The accuracy of some instruments depends on how they're used. Balances should be set to 0 with a container on them so you only measure the mass if the contents. If balance is not zeroed properly, all the measurements will be incorrect by the same amount. |
| Random Errors | Random errors are different for every reading. For example, if you take the temperature of water in a beaker, the thermometer might return a slightly different reading each time it dips into a different part of the water. |
| Linear Equations | If a relationship between two variables produces a straight line on a graph, we call the relationship linear. Linear relationships can be described by equations written like this: y=mx+b. |
| Rearranging Equations | Sometimes you need to rearrange an equation before doing a calculation. |
| Standard Form | This shows a long number as a much shorter number (from 1 to under 10) multiplied by a power of 10. To work out the power of 10, count how many time the decimal point has to move. |
| Calculating Percentages | A percentage is a number shown as a fraction of 100. To turn any fraction into a percentage, work out the answer on a calculator, multiply the answer by 100, and add a percentage symbol. |
| SI Units | Scientists around the world use the Systeme International (SI) system of units. |
| Base Units | All SI units are based on a small number of base units. |
| Derived Units | Most SI units are derived from base units. |
| SI Prefixes | A meter isn't a very useful unit for measuring the size of an atom or the distance to Mars, so we add prefixes to standard units to make bigger or smaller versions. |
Created by:
Wraith0014
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