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Psych Chp 9
based on study guide/text
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| metacognition | cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes |
| concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people |
| prototype | a mental image or best example of a category; matching items to this provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories |
| example of how prototypes help with efficient sorting and categorization | as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow |
| algorithim | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; less prone to errors but more time consuming |
| heuristic | a simple thinking strategy - a mental shortcut - that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but also more error-prone |
| insight | a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions |
| confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence |
| fixation | in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving |
| intuition | an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning |
| representative heuristic | judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information |
| availability heuristic | judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common |
| Why can news be described as "something that hardly ever happens?" How does knowing this help us assess our fears? | |
| over confidence | the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments |
| factors that exaggerate fears | we fear what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear; we fear what we cannot control; we fear what is immediate; thanks to the availability of heuristic, we fear what is most readily available in memory |
| belief perseverance | the persistence of one's initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| framing | the way an issue is posed; how an issue is presented can significantly affect decisions and judgments |
| nudge | framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions |
| the effects of framing | healthier eating, saving for retirement, making moral decisions, becoming an organ donor |
| creativity | the ability to produce new and valuable ideas |
| convergent thinking | narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution |
| divergent thinking | expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that branches off in different directions |
| five components for creativity | expertise, imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, a creative environment |
| powers of algorithm | guarantees solution |
| perils of algorithm | requires time and effort |
| powers of heuristic | lets us act quickly and efficiently |
| perils of heuristic | puts us at risk for errors |
| powers of insight | provides instant realization of solution |
| perils of insight | may not happen |
| powers of confirmation bias | lets us quickly recognize supporting evidence |
| perils of confirmation bias | hinders recognition of contradictory evidence |
| powers of fixation | focuses thinking |
| perils of fixation | hinders creative problem solving |
| powers of intuition | is based on our experience; huge and adaptive |
| perils of intuition | can lead us to overfeel and underthink |
| powers of overconfidence | allows us to live more happily and to make decisions easily |
| perils of overconfidence | also puts us at risk for errors |
| powers of belief perseverance | supports our enduring beliefs |
| perils of belief perseverance | closes our mind to new ideas |
| powers of framing | can influence others' decisions |
| perils of framing | can produce a misleading result |
| powers of creativity | produces new insights and products |
| perils of creativity | may distract from structured, routine work |
| a mental grouping of similar things is called a | concept |
| the most systematic procedure for solving a problem is a(n) | algorithm |
| a major obstacle to problem solving is fixation, which is a(n) | inability to view a problem from a new perspective |
| Omar describes his political beliefs as "strongly liberal," but he is interested in exploring opposing viewpoints. How might he be affected by confirmation bias and belief perseverance? | |
| Terrorist attacks made Americans more fearful of being victimized by foreign terrorism than of other, greater threats. Such exaggerated fear after dramatic events illustrates the ____ heuristic | availability |
| When consumers respond more positively to ground beef described as "75% lean" than to the same product labeled "25% fat," they have been influenced by | framing |
| language | our spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning |
| phoneme | in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit |
| morpheme | in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) |
| grammar | in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others |
| semantics | the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds |
| syntax | the language's set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences |
| How many morphemes are in the word "cats?" How many phonemes? | 2 morphemes (cat and s), 4 phonemes (c, a, t, and s) |
| What was Noam Chomsky's view of language development? | |
| babbling stage | the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language |
| one-word stage | the stage on speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words |
| two-word stage | the stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences |
| telegraphic speech | the early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - "go car" - using mostly nouns and verbs |
| At month ____ a baby babbles many speech sounds ("ah-goo"). | 4 |
| At month ____ a baby's babbling resembles the household language ("ma-ma"). | 10 |
| At month ____ a baby uses one-word speech ("Kitty!"). | 12 |
| At month ____ a baby uses two-word speech ("Get ball."). | 24 |
| At month ____ a baby experiences rapid development of speech into complete sentences. | 24+ |
| What is the difference between receptive language and productive language, and when do children normally hit these milestones in language development? | |
| Why is it so difficult to learn a new language in adulthood? | |
| aphasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding) |
| Broca's area | a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech. |
| Wernicke's area | a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression |
| linguistic determinism | Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think |
| linguistic relativism | the idea that language influences the way we think |
| ____ is one part of the brain that, if damaged, might impair your ability to speak words. Damage to ____ might impair your ability to understand language. | Broca's area; Wernicke's area |
| Benjamin Lee Whorf's controversial hypothesis, called ____, suggested that we cannot think about things unless we have words for those concepts or ideas. | linguistic determinism |
| What is mental practice, and how can it help you to prepare for an upcoming event? | |
| If your dog barks at a stranger at the door, does this qualify as language? What if the dog yips in a telltale way to let you know she needs to go out? | No, it's communication in both cases. You do not need language to communicate. Language must have a set of grammatical rules, yipping and barking do not have grammatical rules. |
| Children reach the one-word stage of speech development at about | 1 year |
| The three basic building blocks of language are | phonemes, morphemes, and grammar |
| When young children speak in short phrases using mostly verbs and nouns, this is referred to as | telegraphic speech |
| According to Chomsky, humans have a built-in predisposition to learn grammar rules; he called this trait | |
| Most researchers agree that apes can | |
| intelligence | the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations |
| general intelligence (g) | according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test |
| fluid intelligence (Gf) | our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood |
| crystallized intelligence (Gc) | our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age |
| Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory | the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc |
| savant syndrome | a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing |
| How does the existence of savant syndrome support Gardener's theory of multiple intelligences? | |
| emotional intelligence | the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions |
| According to the Spearman's theory of general intelligence (g), | A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas. |
| Strengths of Spearman's theory of general intelligence (g) | Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate. |
| Weaknesses of Spearman's theory of general intelligence (g) | Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor. |
| According to the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory, | Our intelligence is based on a general ability factor as well as other specific abilities, bridged by crystallized and fluid. intelligence |
| Strengths of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory | Intelligence is composed of broad and narrow abilities, such as reading ability, memory capacity, and processing speed. |
| Weaknesses of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory | The specific abilities outlined by this theory may be too narrowly cognitive. |
| According to Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, | Our abilities are best classified into eight or nine independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts. |
| Strengths of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences | Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability. |
| Weaknesses of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences | Should all our abilities be considered intelligences? Shouldn't some be called less vital talents? |
| According to Sternberg's triarchic theory, | Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical. |
| Strengths of Sternberg's triarchic theory | These three domains can be readily measured. |
| Weaknesses of Sternberg's triarchic theory | These three domains may be less independent than the theory suggests, and may actually share an underlying g factor. |
| According to the theory of emotional intelligence, | Social intelligence is an important indicator of life success. Emotional intelligence is a key aspect of it, consisting of perceiving, understanding, managing, and using emotions. |
| Strengths of the theory of emotional intelligence | These four components predict social success and emotional well-being. |
| Weaknesses of the theory of emotional intelligence | Does this stretch the concept of intelligence too far? |
| How does the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence integrate the idea of general intelligence as well as specific abilities? | |
| intelligence test | a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of other, using numerical scores |
Created by:
ccons