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IB ESS Term 2
IB ESS Term 2 (Topics 1 and 2)
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what is insolation | solar radiation that enters the Earth's atmosphere |
| name the ways that energy from insolation can be made unavailable to ecosystems | energy is absorbed by inorganic matter (clouds, molecules, dust or the ground) or reflected back into the atmosphere (from the ground, by clouds, or by scatter) |
| name the pathways of energy through an ecosystem | include: conversion of light energy to chemical energy, transfer of chemical energy from one trophic level to another (varying efficiency), conversion of ultraviolet and visible light to heat energy , re-radiation of heat energy to the atmosphere. |
| Define productivity | the conversion of energy into biomass for a given period of time |
| describe Net primary productivity (NPP) | calculated by subtracting respiratory losses (R) from gross primary productivity (GPP). NPP = GPP - R |
| describe Gross secondary productivity (GSP) | is the total energy or biomass assimilated by consumers and is calculated by subtracting the mass of faecal loss from the mass of food consumed. GSP = food eaten - faecal loss |
| describe Net secondary productivity (NSP) | is calculated by subtracting respiratory losses (R) from GSP. NSP = GSP - R |
| Identify the formulae for NPP, GSP, NSP | NPP = GPP - R GSP = food eaten - faecal loss NSP = GSP – R |
| Compare values for GPP and NPP from various biomes | e.g. Mean NPP's in Biomes e.g. Desert 0.003 kg/m-3/hr Tundra 0.14 kg/m-3/hr Temperate grassland 0.60 kg/m-3/hr Savannah 0.90 kg/m-3/hr Temperate forest 1.2 kg/m-3/hr Tropical rainforest 2.20 kg/m-3/hr |
| Define Maximum sustainable yield in terms of productivity | the maximum amount of resource extraction without depleting the resources from harvests. It is equivalent to the net primary or net secondary productivity of a system. |
| Explain how the carbon and nitrogen cycles are linked to the flow of matter | These cycles can be used to illustrate the flow of matter. The flows contain storages (sometimes referred to as sinks) and flows, which move matter between storages. |
| Identify examples of storages in the carbon cycle | organisms and forests (both organic), or the atmosphere, soil, fossil fuels and oceans (all inorganic). |
| Identify examples of flows in the carbon cycle | include consumption (feeding), death and decomposition, photosynthesis, respiration, dissolving and fossilization. |
| Identify examples of storages in the nitrogen cycle | include organisms (organic), soil, fossil fuels, atmosphere and water bodies (all inorganic). |
| Identify examples of flows in the nitrogen cycle | include nitrogen fixation by bacteria and lightning, absorption, assimilation, consumption (feeding), excretion, death and decomposition, and denitrification by bacteria in water-logged soils |
| Identify human activities that impact energy flows and the carbon and nitrogen cycles | burning fossil fuels, deforestation, urbanization and agriculture impact energy flows as well as the carbon and nitrogen cycles. |
| If a forest has a gross primary productivity of 6.5 gm-2d-1 and a net primary productivity of 4.0 gm-2d-1, what are its energy losses due to respiration | 2.5 gm-2d-1 |
| A field of cows has a gross secondary productivity of 5.0 tonnes C m-2hr-1, produces 0.5 tonnes C m-2yr-1 in cowpats and loses 2.1 tonnes C m-2yr-1 in respiration. What is the net secondary productivity? | 2.9 gm-2d-1 |
| Define Biomes | collections of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions and so give rise to similar vegetation patterns. Grouped into five major classes: aquatic, forest, grassland, desert and tundra. Characterised by limiting factors, productivity and biodiversity |
| Identify the main factors governing the distribution of biomes | Insolation, precipitation and temperature, productivity and biodiversity. |
| Explain how the tricellular model of atmospheric circulation influences biomes | The model explains the distribution of precipitation and temperature and how they influence structure and relative productivity of different terrestrial biomes. |
| Name the phenomena that is altering the distribution of biomes and causing biome shifts | Climate change |
| Define Zonation | changes in community along an environmental gradient due to factors such as changes in altitude, latitude, tidal level or distance from shore (coverage by water). |
| Define Succession | the process of change over time in an ecosystem involving pioneer, intermediate and climax communities. Changes in structure and species composition change the abiotic components of the system. |
| Identify the factors that change over time during succession | the patterns of energy flow, gross and net productivity, diversity, and mineral cycling change over time. |
| Identify the three types of diversity | habitat, species and genetic diversity |
| Describe the relationship between habitat diversity and species/genetic diversity. | Greater habitat diversity leads to greater species and genetic diversity. |
| Describe which type of species are better adapted to pioneer and climax communities. | r-strategist species have reproductive strategies that are better adapted to pioneer communities K-strategist species have reproductive strategies that are better adapted to climax communities |
| Describe gross productivity in the early stages of succession | GP is low due to the unfavourable initial conditions and low density of producers. The proportion of energy lost through community respiration is relatively low, so net productivity is high—the system is growing and biomass is accumulating. |
| Describe gross productivity in the later stages of succession | with an increased consumer community, GP may be high in a climax community. However, this is balanced by respiration, so net productivity approaches 0 and the productivity–respiration (P:R) ratio approaches 1. |
| Identify the factors that contribute to the stability of complex ecosystems | the variety of nutrient and energy pathways contributes to its stability. The more complex the ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem will be. |
| Identify how human activity can divert the progression of succession | By modifying the ecosystem; for example, the use of fire in an ecosystem, the use of agriculture, grazing pressure, or resource use (such as deforestation). This diversion may be more or less permanent depending upon the resilience of the ecosystem. |
| Describe the relationship between diversity and resilience in an ecosystem | An ecosystem’s capacity to survive change may depend on its diversity and resilience. |
| Discuss the factors that could lead to alternative stable states in an ecosystem. | There is no one climax community, but rather a set of alternative stable states in an ecosystem. These depend on climatic factors, properties of soil and a range events that can occur over time, the nutrient and energy pathways contribute to stability. |
| Describe some methods to identify organisms | Organisms in an ecosystem can be identified using a variety of tools including keys, comparison to herbarium or specimen collections, technologies and scientific expertise. |
| Define Pollution | the addition of a substance or an agent to an environment through human activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the environment, and which has an appreciable effect on the organisms in the environment. |
| Describe some of the limiting factors of Aquatic biomes | water absorbs light so photosynthesis can be limited. Deep water = no light. Fresh water can easily be frozen in cool temps and/or polar winters. |
| Describe some of the limiting factors of Forest biomes | Often in poor, thin soils - high rainfall leaches nutrients from the soil. Available nutrients commonly locked in biomass instead of the soil. Cold, dry winters in temperate forests. |
| Describe some of the limiting factors of Grassland biomes | Less precipitation than other biomes (e.g. forests), but more than deserts. Seasonal temperature extremes affect (limit) productivity. Low decomposition and nutrient cycling. |
| Describe some of the limiting factors of Desert biomes | Little precipitation. High evaporation. Extreme differences in day and night temperatures. Low water limits photosynthesis. |
| Describe some of the limiting factors of Tundra biomes | Short days limit photosynthesis and therefore primary productivity. Photosynthesis limited by frozen water in winter and saturated soils after thaw. Slow nutrient cycles as cold limits decomposition and nutrient |
| Describe the productivity of Aquatic biomes | Tropical coral reefs - high productivity Deep oceans - very low productivity temperate fresh water - moderate productivity |
| Describe the productivity of Forest biomes | Tropical rainforest - very high productivity temperate rainforests - high productivity but lower in autumn and winter |
| Describe the productivity of Grassland biomes | Moderate to low productivity - temperature extremes and slow nutrient cycles limit productivity for part of each year |
| Describe the productivity of Desert biomes | Low productivity. Water is needed for photosynthesis and is often limiting. Soils may have good nutrient levels from minimal leaching (no water). |
| Describe the productivity of Tundra biomes | Low productivity due to short days and low temperatures. Frozen water will limit photosynthesis. |
| Describe the biodiversity of Aquatic biomes | Tropical coral reefs - high biodiversity Deep oceans - very low biodiversity temperate fresh water - moderate to low biodiversity |
| Describe the biodiversity of Forest biomes | Very high biodiversity in tropical rainforests (highest diversity on Earth). Very high biodiversity in temperate forests. |
| Describe the biodiversity of Grassland biomes | High biodiversity as soils are rich in nutrients and support extensive food webs. |
| Describe the biodiversity of Desert biomes | Low biodiversity because extremes of precipitation and temperature are not optimal for plant or animal survival. |
| Describe the biodiversity of Tundra biomes | Limited biodiversity because it is too cold for reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates (all are cold blooded). |
| Define climate | the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years |
| Define weather | the day-to-day fluctuations in temperature, insolation and precipitation. |
| Describe how insolation impacts the distribution of biomes | The tilt of the earth's axis influences the insolation (amount of solar energy reaching the surface). Higher levels of sunlight will result in greater photosynthesis. Lower angle of incoming light will result in less insolation/photsynthesis. |
| Describe how latitude impacts the distribution of biomes | The distance north and south from the equator will result in less insolation and possibly polar cell activity - cooler temps and less sunlight will affect photosynthesis and thus, productivity |
| Describe how altitude impacts the distribution of biomes | Higher altitudes are likely to have greater ice and snow or tundra - temperature extremes and frozen water will impact on the amount of photosynthesis and therefore productivity. |
| Describe the tricellular model of atmospheric circulation. | Three cells - Polar, Ferrel and Hadley - circulate cold or warm air and impact the distribution of precipitation and temperature. Hot air can hold more water vapour hence, tropics are generally wetter than polar zones. |
| Describe how climate change may alter the distribution of biomes | Temperature increase of 1.5C to 4.5C by 2100 Greater warming at higher latitudes More warming in winter than summer Some areas becoming drier, others wetter Stronger storms |
| Provide some examples of shifting biomes | In Africa, in the Sahel region, savannas are becoming deserts (desertification) and woodlands are becoming savannas. In the Arctic, tundra is becoming shrubland. |
| Describe how zonation changes communities | Zonation is how an ecosystem changes across an environmental gradient. As the environment changes (altitude, latitude, tidal level or distance from shore) the niches change and so too do the communities present. E.g. Vertical layers in a rainforest. |
| Distinguish between zonation and succession | Zonation is spatial, tends to be static and is caused by an abiotic change. Succession is dynamic and takes place over long periods of time and causes abiotic changes. |
| Describe primary succession | occurs on bare abiotic surfaces. The colonization of newly created land by organisms. No soil or organic matter. E.g. sand dunes, volcanic lava flows, |
| Describe secondary succession | occurs when an established ecosystem is destroyed. Bare areas exist where vegetation has been. Soil and some plants already exist and the land becomes recolonized much more quickly. E.g. fire, covered with flood silt, volcanic ash or deforestation. |
| Describe the pioneer stage of succession | Pioneer species are typically r-selected species E.g. lichens, mosses and very small herbs Simple soil starts from windblown dust and mineral particles. Gross productivity is low, species diversity is low and therefore community respiration is low |
| Describe the intermediate stage of succession | Species diversity increases. There are more grasses and small shrubs. More species increases organic matter in the soil, allowing more species to colonise. Gross productivity increases. Species interactions increase. Respiration increases. |
| Describe the climax stage of succession | Larger plants increase cover and provide shelter, enabling K-selected species establish. A stable environment with an equilibrium that allows species to exist together. r-species are unable to compete with K species for space, nutrients or light |
| Summarise some of the major changes that occur during succession | Size of organisms increase Energy flow / food webs become more complex. Ecosystems become more resilient Soil depth, humus, water-holding capacity, mineral content, and cycling all increase. Biodiversity increases. NPP and GPP rise and then fall. |
| Describe r-strategists | Small animals/plants. Produce lots of eggs/offspring. Low amounts of maternal care. A large proportion of the young don't survive to adulthood. Most competitive in new, disturbed and pioneer communities. |
| Describe k-strategists | Larger animals/plants. Few offspring produced with energy invested in care of young. Larger proportion of young survive to adulthood. Most competitive in stable, well established communities with complex food webs. |
| Describe the stability and resilience in a climax community. | A stable community means that there is a more complex food web and the community is more able to withstand environmental disturbances (are more resilient). This is due to greater nutrient cycling, complexity of interactions and species diversity. |
| Describe how human factors can affect succession | Deforestation, grazing, agriculture and mining are examples of human factors that can cause environmental disturbances. These can divert the community away from forming a climax community (a diverted seres) influencing the stability and resilience. |
| Describe the two types of survivorship curves | S-shape curve represents a population that is at carrying capacity (K-strategy species) J-shape curve represents a population existing in an exponential phase of growth (r-strategy species) |
| Describe some examples of natural pollution | volcanic eruptions or wild fires |
| Describe some examples of man made pollution | the spilling of oil and disposal or industrial waste. Man-made pollution could also include thermal, sound or light pollution and living organisms (invasive species or biological agents). |
| Describe some examples of domestic waste pollution | food waste, sewage, rubbish (glass, plastics, paper, wood, metals |
| Describe some examples of industrial waste pollution | heavy metals, heat (in air and/or water), acids |
| Describe some examples of agricultural waste pollution | fertilizers, animal waste, and pesticides contaminated water sources |
| Define point source pollution | Pollution that can be traced back to a single origin or source (eg. sewage treatment plant discharge). The source of the pollution can be tracked |
| Define non-point source pollution | Pollution which cannot be traced back to a single origin or source (eg. agricultural runoff, vehicle exhausts, storm water runoff, water runoff from urban areas and failed septic systems). The pollution is more dispersed and difficult to track. |
| Describe why point source pollution is easier to manage | Point source pollution is localised which means it is often a single party responsible and can be regulated by one jurisdiction. Non-point solution is often hard to prove who is responsible and regulation is more challenging. |
| Identify why POPs are problematic. | They are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Passed along food chains as a result Concentrations build with each higher tropic level resulting in biomagnification. e.g. DDT |
| Describe biodegradable pollutants | These do not persist in the environment and break down quickly. They may be broken down by decomposer organisms or broken down quickly by physical processes e.g. light and heat. Examples are soap, domestic sewage and plastic bags made of starch. |
| Describe acute pollution | large amounts of pollutant released at one time Symptoms appear soon after short, intense exposure Bhopal Disaster 1984 |
| Describe chronic pollution | long term release of small amount of pollution. Symptoms appear after long term, low-level exposure. Often goes undetected for a long time and spreads widely. E.g. Air pollution |
| Describe primary pollution | Pollutants that are released and are active on emission. Carbon monoxide – released from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels Nitrogen oxides – released by industry and automobiles Sulfur oxides – emitted from burning coal |
| Describe secondary pollution | arising from primary pollutants undergoing physical or chemical change with one another or the environment. e.g. photochemical smog, tropospheric ozone, acid rain. Some pollutants may have a lag time before an appreciable effect on organisms is evident |
| Describe how pollution can be measured | Direct methods– record the amount of a pollutant in water, air or soil. (e.g. nitrates/phosphates/heavy metals/particles in the atmosphere PM2.5/PM10) Indirect methods– Record changes in an abiotic or biotic factor. (e.g. turbidity, indicator species.) |
| Describe the three level model of pollution management | a model that shows different ways for reducing the impact of pollutants: It can be called the “reduce, regulate and restore” model. |
| Describe the level 1 pollution management strategies | Altering human activities to prevent/reduce the release of pollutants. Most proactive Educate Economic incentives (rebates for solar panels) Difficult to achieve because it is necessary to change behavior of people, business and/or government) |
| Describe the level 2 pollution management strategies | Control release of pollutant Legislation and regulation. Develop technology for extracting pollutants from emissions. Strategy fails to fully address the problem because pollutant is still being produced |
| Describe the level 3 pollution management strategies | Working to clean up or restore damaged ecosystems Last resort, there is already an impact Removing pollutant from ecosystem (e.g. rubbish) Replanting/restocking lost or depleted populations |
| Describe the impact of using DDT | DDT kills mosquitoes and lice Used during WW2 to combat typhus and malaria and widely used in agriculture. Health impacts of DDT: increased rates of Asthma and diabetes, Liver & breast cancers Softening of Bald eagle egg shells. Silent Spring |
| Describe the pathways of radiation through the atmosphere | Refer to Figure 4 (OneNote, Syllabus or Textbook): Solar radiation from the sun. Radiation is lost by Reflection ((31%) by scatter, clouds or the ground) or absorption ((69%) by dust and molecules or clouds and the ground - land and ocean) |
| Describe the flow of matter in an ecosystem. | Through transfers and transformations matter flows through ecosystems linking them together. |
| Identify how many major classes of Biomes are described in ESS | Five - aquatic, forest, grassland, desert and tundra. |
| How are Biomes determined? | Each class has characteristic limiting factors (e.g. insolation, rain, temp), productivity and biodiversity. Climate determines the type of biome in a given area, although individual ecosystems may vary due to many local abiotic and biotic factors. |
| Name the three circulation patterns in the tricellular model | Polar Cell, Ferrel Cell and Hadley Cell. |
| Relate stable states to succession | There is no one climax community, but rather a set of alternative stable states for a given ecosystem. These depend on the climatic factors, the properties of the local soil and a range of random events that can occur over time. |
| Describe how humans can impact stable states during succession | Human activity can divert succession to an alternative stable state by modifying the ecosystem (e.g. agriculture, deforestation). The diversion may be more or less permanent depending on the resilience of the ecosystem. |
| Describe what can impact on an ecosystem's capacity to survive a disturbance | • An ecosystem’s capacity to survive change may depend on its diversity and resilience. |
| Discuss the factors that could lead to alternative stable states in an ecosystem. | complexity of an ecosystem, the size and type of disturbance (i.e. natural or human activity), soil properties, random events, the variety of nutrient and energy pathways (stability), the ability to withstand the disturbance (resilience) |
| When studying an ecosystem, what details are required | The name and location of the ecosystem (e.g. Deinikerwald in Baar, Switzerland—a mixed deciduous–coniferous managed woodland.) |
| When measurements are taken in an ecosystem, what can improve the reliability of the data collected | Measurements should be repeated to increase reliability of data. The number of repetitions required depends on the factor being measured. |
| Describe some methods for estimating the abundance of non-motile organisms | include the use of quadrats for making actual counts, measuring population density, percentage cover and percentage frequency. Direct methods include actual counts and sampling. Indirect methods include capture–mark–recapture (Lincoln index). |
| Describe Species Richness | the number of species in a community and it is a useful comparative measure between ecosystems or sites |
| Describe Species Diversity | a function of the number of species and their relative abundance which can be compared using an index. There are many versions of diversity indices (ESS students are only expected to be able to apply and evaluate the result of the Simpson diversity index) |
| Describe methods to construct ecological pyramids | Methods for estimating the biomass and energy of trophic levels in a community include measurement of dry mass, controlled combustion and extrapolation from samples. Data from these methods can be used to construct ecological pyramids. |
| Define pollution | the addition of a substance or an agent to an environment through human activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the environment, and which has an appreciable effect on the organisms in the environment. |
| Describe organic pollutants | pollution from an organic source (animals or plants) usually resistant to degradation (e.g. sewage, waste from paper or food factories) |
| Describe inorganic pollutants | plastics, heavy metals or hydrocarbons emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels. They do not contain carbon elements. |
| Describe light pollution | Pollution as a result of cities, airports or traffic. The lights, particularly in the night sky, can impact on the migration of species. |
| Describe sound pollution | Pollution resulting from consistent noise e.g. traffic, refineries or airports where the noise is not naturally occurring. |
| Describe thermal pollution | pollution resulting from warm air or water being released into waterways or the atmosphere. The increase in temperature can have an impact on ecosystems through animal life cycles and habitats. |
| Describe invasive species | species that are not endemic (naturally occurring) in an ecosystem. These animals often have no natural predators so can reproduce rapidly without populations experiencing environmental resistance e.g. cane toads, crown of thorns starfish |
| Describe biological agents | bacteria, viruses, fungi, other microorganisms and their associated toxins that can impact ecosystems. e.g. faecal coliforms or E.coli detected in drinking water. |
| Define biodegradable pollution | pollution that is capable of being decomposed by bacteria or other living organisms. This does not build up in individuals or get passed along the food chain. |
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