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ANTH2140 2023
Final exam prep for 2140 Intro to Archaeology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| State society | Society with a hierarchy that is maintained by a centralized power that can use force (or the threat of force) to control the population |
| Major traits of a state-level society | inequality, centralized rule and bureaucracy, record keeping, cities with dense populations, legal system, standing military |
| Urbanism and the Urban Revolution | Based on the traits listed by Childe, the development of cities in the archaeological record is thought to show through the material evidence for things like foreign trade, craft specialization, taxation, high population density, and inequality. |
| The Tigris and Euphrates River Valley | Associated with the Mesopotamian city-states. A fertile floodplain that was good for agriculture, but had few stone or wood building materials. Archaeology is difficult here due to the rapid covering of sites. |
| Ubaid Period | 7,000 - 6,000 years ago. Earliest period with signs of developing state in Mesopotamia |
| Uruk Period | 6,000 - 5,200 years ago. Early state society in Mesopotamia with spread of city centres that controlled economy and politics from temple districts. Clear formation of powerful elite. |
| Early Dynastic Mesopotamia | 5,200 - 4,350 years ago. Clear rise of state society in Mesopotamia with founding of city-states (at least 30 known). |
| Eridu site | Ubaid Period site (ca. 7,000 - 1,400 years ago) that was a permanent settlement that may have had an early form of centralized government focused on a temple in the city core. |
| City of Uruk | Uruk Period site (ca. 6,000 - 5,300 years ago) that is representative of city-state structure and oldest true city in region. The population of 20-40k were controlled by a king from the city's temple complex. |
| Ziggurat | A stepped pyramid typical of the Mesopotamia region. These structures are often in the city centre and part of a complex that includes temples, platforms, sometimes palaces, and storage facilities. |
| Rulership in Uruk | Evidence for elites, but not clear if king was only one with power. Kings may have also been priests and heads of the military. Also evidence for city councils |
| Bullae and cylinder seals | Recording keeping methods from Mesopotamia, likely related to trade and marking ownership of goods. Bullae were hollow balls filled with tokens, while cylinder seals had elaborate images carved in them to make impressions on wet clay. |
| Cuneiform | Written language for record keeping across Mesopotamian region that used wedge-shaped stylus to make standardized symbols. Used by many culture groups, so not associated with one spoken language. Mostly used for trade and economic records. |
| City-state | A major city that is governed and acts like an independent state, often administers surrounding settlements but not larger regions. City-states can share sociocultural elements, while cooperating or competing. The best example - Early Dynastic Mesopotamia |
| Code of Hammurabi | Dated to ca. 3,800 years ago and thought to be in the Sumerian language (written in cuneiform). This is a written code of law likely used in Mesopotamian city-states and it shows the extent of the rulers influence on society. |
| Specialized craft production | One of the traits associated with urbanism and state level society. In archaeological record see individuals dedicated to certain crafts, often in specific workshop areas making highly standardized products (ie. pots, bricks, beads, etc). |
| Royal Tombs of Ur | Cemetery associated with City of Ur, a city-state during the Early Dynastic in Mesopotamia. Rich burials of elites with large quantities of imported gold, beads, and precious materials made into luxury objects and ornaments. |
| Source of power in Mesopotamia | Thought to be through control of trade and economy, giving elites access to luxury goods. Burial of elite goods suggests that acquiring wealth within lifetime was part of gaining power. |
| Akkadian Empire | One of the earliest empires in archaeological record, and the cause of the end of the Early Dynastic period in Mesopotamia around 4,350 years ago. |
| Upper and Lower Egypt | Two major regions in the Nile Valley that contained different kingdoms in Ancient Egypt. Lower Egypt is in the north around the river delta, while Upper Egypt is associated with cataracts in the south. |
| Predynastic Period | A period in Ancient Egypt with the earliest signs of state formation (ca. 6,500 - 5,000 years ago). Had at least three kingdoms, but not much is known about social or political organization |
| Early Dynastic Egypt | 5,000 - 4,575 years ago. The period when Upper and Lower Egypt were unified into single kingdom by Narmer. The beginning of the dynastic system in Ancient Egypt. |
| Narmer Palette | An artifact made of carved stone that depicts the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by King Narmer. The scenes show Narmer conquering the kingdoms and wearing the crowns of both Upper and Lower Egypt to symbolize his unified rule. |
| Territorial state | The centralized power has control over a region (or territory) and is not confined to ruling from a specific city. Best example is Ancient Egypt, where city centres were rare and the capital regularly moved, but the kings/pharaohs still ruled a territory. |
| Pharaoh | The king and ruler of Ancient Egypt. Gained power through heredity and divine right. Had a special connection to the gods Ra, Horus, and Osiris in particular. Responsible for maintaining balance and justice (ma'at) during rule. |
| Scribes in Ancient Egypt | Essential for bureaucracy, including trade and law concerns. Record keeping and scribes were likely given special status for their role in maintaining state control. |
| Egyptian hieroglyphics | A system of writing primarily used on elite tombs and temples. Used a combination of symbols to represent whole words and individual sounds within spoken language. Fully translated today, but do not know what Ancient Egyptian sounded like. |
| Hieratic and demotic | The more common writing systems used in Ancient Egypt, mostly for religious texts, daily records, and economic matters. Mostly written on papyrus. |
| Abydos | An important site from the Early Dynastic Period in Ancient Egypt. Time when burials were moved to the desert in the Nile Valley, separating them from settlements near river. Tombs had burial chamber covered by platform and mudbrick structure. |
| Saqqara | An Early Dynasty period step pyramid in Ancient Egypt, associated with King Djoser. Represents developmental stage of true pyarmids. |
| Red Pyramid | Old Kingdom pyramid built for Snefru, thought to be the first true pyramid. Represents end results of multiple failed attempts to make a straight-sided pyramid. |
| Cheops, Cepheren, and Mycerinus | The kings associated with the Pyramids of Giza, built during the Old Kingdom period. Part of a larger pyramid complex with temples, tombs, plazas, roadways, and the Great Sphinx. |
| Pyramid of Cheops | First and largest pyramid in Giza complex. Likely faced with polished limestone to make pyramid shine, but interior is very plain. Burial chamber had sarcophagus and few to no luxury burial objects. |
| New Kingdom period | A period in Ancient Egypt that represents a major change in religion and politics around 3,532 years ago. Akhenaten becomes king and burials move to the Valley of the Kings to be hidden. |
| Akhenaten | King at the beginning of the New Kingdom period in Ancient Egypt. Known for reforming religious system and art style across Egypt. He also moved the capital and shifted burial practices to the Valley of the Kings. After death his reforms were abandoned. |
| Valley of the Kings | A burial complex associated with New Kingdom Egypt. The outer appearance is less obvious than the pyramids, but the interior chambers are filled with luxury and elite goods. |
| Kerma Kingdom | 4,500 - 3,500 years ago. Kingdom located in Nubia (modern day Sudan) that was conquered by Thutmose I during the New Kingdom period in Egypt. Elite power and trade rivalled that of Egypt. |
| Kingdom of Kush | 3,100 - 1,800 years ago. Kingdom in Nubia (modern day Sudan) that came to rule Ancient Egypt in the New Kingdom period until Assyrian armies invaded the region. |
| Ptolemaic Kingdom | Ancient Egypt under Greco-Roman rule. After the fall of Kush rulership, power is returned to Egyptian dynasties but with heavy influence from Greece and Rome. Period known for time of Cleopatra. |
| Indus River Valley | Region associated with very large and fast moving river in present-day Pakistan area. Location of the Harappan culture. |
| Pre-Harappan Period | 5,300 - 4,600 years ago. Earliest signs of state formation in Indus Valley. Settlements were large fortified towns that had increasingly uniform material culture. Example, Kunal site. |
| Mature Harappan Period | 4,600 - 3,900 years ago. Formation of major urban centres in Indus Valley and spread of highly standardized material culture that suggests region-wide social, cultural, and economic interactions. |
| Features of a Harappan city | Large city centres known for being highly planned and built on a grid system. Streets and dwellings connected through an elaborate drainage system for water control and sanitation. Neighbourhoods clear, but evidence for elite sectors not obvious. |
| Mohenjo-daro | One of the largest Harappan Period cities in the Indus Valley. See city design of raised mounds and gated walls that divided city into neighbourhoods. Upper mound likely elite or of ritual significance. |
| Harappan city walls | Indus Valley cities had large walls within and around them, but no evidence they were for defence or warfare. May have been for flood control and organizing parts of city. |
| Harappan script | About 400 known symbols found in Harappan culture sites in Indus Valley. Mostly on carved seals and cylinders, but we do not know what they say. Inscriptions are no more than 26 characters and often with images. |
| Unicorns and horned tigers | Common creatures depicted on Mature Harappan seals and carvings. Appear to be mythological animals, but can appear alongside real animals and human-like figures. It is not clear what they mean. |
| Harappan standardization | Major evidence for the power of the administrative system in the Mature Harappan period, and supports the existence of a state. Can be seen in the stone weights, uniform brick measurements, and workshops making standardized goods (like beads and pottery). |
| Inequality in Mature Harappan Period | There is no clear or agreed upon evidence for significant inequality despite the signs of state-level society. Burials are fairly consistent and households had similar structures/contents. Main evidence is Priest King sculpture that hints at silk fabric. |
| Harappan Priest King sculpture | Carved depiction of a bearded, male figure weaing patterned cloth and ornaments. Thought to represent a ruler or powerful man. Evidence of silk fabrics in Harappan cities may mean status was shown through clothing, like seen on the sculpture. |
| End of the Harappan state | Highly debated, though likely a combination of flooding, disease, and state development in the Indian subcontinent. Some have suggested invasion, but no evidence for mass violence or warfare. |
| Yiluo Valley | A large tributary of the Yellow River in the central plains of Northern China. Thought to be the location of the first dynasties in Ancient China. |
| Early Longshan Period | 5,000 - 4,000 years ago. Late neolithic settlement in Yiluo Valley, China. Shows population increase at permanent settlements, as well as elaboration of pottery and jade production. Early evidence for silk making and heavy reliance on domesticates. |
| Three Dynasties | 4,000 - 2,500 years ago. Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties of Ancient China. Thought to be located in the Yiluo Valley based on historical records. Unclear whether historical records are accurate or semi-mythological. |
| Settlement hierarchy | When settlements in a region have different traits and roles in a society depending on their location and size. Dynasties in Ancient China had a 3-tiered hierarchy of city centres, secondary centres, and small villages. |
| Erlitou | Thought to be the capital of the Xia Dynasty (occupied ca. 3,800 - 3,600 years ago). Centre of regional organization system for government and economy. Earliest evidence of ritual bronzes and palace enclosures. |
| Xia Dynasty | The first of the Three Dynasties identified in Chinese historical texts, may be semi-fictional but archaeology from the period in Yiluo Valley shows early state formation consistent with records. Capital may have been at Erlitou site. |
| Anyang | Thought to be capital of Late Shang Dynasty (occupied ca. 3,200 - 3,045 years ago). Shows large earth platforms and palace structures, as well as clusters of buildings suggesting activity and living areas. Clear signs of inequality. |
| Shang Dynasty | The second of the Three Dynasties from Chinese historical texts, may be semi-fictional but lost of archaeology from this period. Bronze ritual vessels are very important, and see earliest written records on oracle bones used for divination. |
| Oracle bones | Popular ritual item from the Shang Dynasty in China used for divination ceremonies. Ruler would ask a question of the ancestors and heat a piece of bone or turtle shell to make it crack. The cracks would be interpreted and the prediction recorded. |
| Shang bronzes | Ritual items that were only owned by rulers and the elites, which gave them control over access to the spirits and important ceremonies. Also associated with sacrifice and burial rituals. |
| Anyang cemetery | Formal burial ground with over 1000 burials from Shang Dynasty, including elite tombs with large quantities of status goods and sacrifices. See evidence that ritual feasting was restricted to elites, giving them more control over ritual life. |
| Zhou Dynasty | The third of the Three Dynasties from Chinese historical texts. Fortifications, development of iron weapons, and adoption of horses for warfare shows increased political unrest and conflict at this time. |
| First Emperor of Qin | Also known as Ying Zheng or Qin Shi Huang. Unified the Ancient Chinese state around 1,800 years ago, temporarily ending the warfare of the previous Zhou Dynasty. Known for his tomb, terracotta warriors, and building the Great Wall. |
| Qin Dynasty | The first dynasty after the Three Dynasties Period, and the first example of an empire in Ancient China. Formed by Qin Shi Huang by unifying the conflicting states of the Zhou Dynasty. |
| Queen Himiko | Mytho-historical ruler of the Japanese kingdom of Yamatai according to Chinese historical records. Said to have created elite connections to Chinese courts, bringing ritual objects like bronze bells and burial tombs to Japan. Unclear if she was real. |
| Kofun Period | Early state period in Japan, ca. 1,800 - 1,200 years ago. Influence from powerful states in China at time seen in the ritual bronze objects buried in large keyhole tombs of elites and rulers. |
| Empire | A sovereign state with multiple territories and peoples outside its original boundaries. It often gains territory through conquest from a dominant core, and administers the different territories according to different rules. |
| Federation | Could be mistaken for an empire in the archaeological record, but there are key differences. Territories and peoples are part of larger group by choice. They are separate states or societies joined by treaty and no one entity has more power. |
| Akkadian Empire | Currently considered the earliest true empire, dated to ca. 4,300 - 4,150 years ago. Founded in Akkad and expanded through conquest by rulers like Sargon (the one responsible for invading Mesopotamia). |
| Mesoamerica | A culture region spread across many modern-day countries in Central America. It is defined by shared culture traits, traditions, history, and practices rather than a geographically defined region. |
| Olmec | ca. 3,200 - 2,300 years ago. A culture period by the Gulf of Mexico that had signs of increasing political complexity in the form of ceremonial centres. The art suggests an elite group as present, but the nature of their political organization is unclear. |
| Giant heads carved from volcanic rock | A form of art and sculpture unique to the Olmec culture in the Gulf of Mexico. These large heads have been interpreted as either elites or deities, and appear to be male individuals wearing ritual headgear (perhaps for the Mesoamerican ball game) |
| Zapotec | ca. 2,700 year ago. A culture period in the Oaxaca Valley that appears to have been an early state society. Best known through the Monte Alban site, where a ceremonial centre formed into a larger city of around 17,000 people. |
| Monte Alban | An important Zapotec site in the Oaxaca Valley region of Mesoamerica. Occupied ca. 2,500 - 2,250 years ago by around 5,000 - 17,000 people. The city had a ceremonial centre of temples and plazas, and was surrounded by neighbourhoods of residential areas. |
| Maya Lowlands | The region associated with the Ancient Maya in Mesoamerica. It consists of tropical rain forests in the south and coastal scrublands in the north. The south was important for the Classic Maya, while the north was occupied during the Post-Classic Maya. |
| Preclassic Period | ca. 3,000 - 1,750. Period associated with the early foundations of the Maya state, including some elements of the ceremonial centre (like stepped pyramids and plazas). Ex. Ceibal site |
| Ceibal | A site occupied during the Preclassic Maya Period and demonstrates the early form of ceremonial centre during state formation in the region. Main feature is a low stepped pyramid built on a natural limestone mound. |
| Classic Period | ca. 1,750 - 1,100 years ago. Clear increase in the importance of ceremonial centres and rise of large cities in southern Maya Lowlands. Considered the peak of ancient Maya state |
| Maya pyramid | Typically a steep-sided stepped-pyramid that is made of multiple stacked platforms and a temple on top. These pyramids were built, rebuilt, and expanded over time by each new ruler. Some have complete temples encased in them from earlier building phases. |
| Pakal | The king of Tikal, one of the larger Classic Maya cities in the southern Lowlands. His tomb contained some luxury goods, but was not packed with wealth like burials in other regions. He is well known for his jade burial mask and the lid of his sarcophagus |
| Tikal | One of the larger city-states from the Classic Maya period, and has the typical elements of a ceremonial centre (pyramids, ball court, plazas) surrounded by residential areas. |
| Copan | One of the larger city-states from the Classic Maya period that is known for the hieroglyphic stairway that records the history of rulers in the city. Record states that important rulers came from outside the region, possible Teotihuacan. |
| Maya hieroglyphs | A written language that originated in the Olmec period. The system combined pictographs to represent concepts as well as sounds, allowing the Maya to record rituals and historic events. Was not developed for economic purposes. |
| Popul Vuh | Collection of Maya myths and cosmology recorded after Spanish conquest, but see parts of story depicted in precolonial images and records. Has many details about rituals and beliefs, including the rules and symbolism of the ball game. |
| Maya calendar | A collection of calendars of different lengths used for time keeping and scheduling important events or rituals. The best known is the Long Count calendar, which appears to track a cycle over 1000s of years. |
| Ball game | A sporting event played across Ancient Mesoamerica, which likely had ritual elements like offerings and human sacrifice. It was played in a walled court with a heavy rubber ball. Players could not use their hands to get the ball into stone circles. |
| Maya elites | Maya rulers and nobility had control over rituals and trade goods, but regularly competed for power. Rulers did not have absolute power, and collapse of Classic Maya may have been from warfare between kings and aristocracy during a major drought period. |
| Calakmul | A Classic Maya site with well-preserved murals depicting daily life of non-elite people. Includes market scenes of food vendors and merchants. |
| Maya Collapse | ca. 1,100 years ago. This term refers to the decline of the Classic Maya in the southern Lowland rain forests. New construction ends in large cities, and population appears to move north. Evidence for increased warfare and bad period of drought. |
| Post-Classic Period | ca. 900 - 1519 CE. Period when Maya population moves to the northern scrub lands in Yucatan. Establish large city-states again, but with a ruling council rather than king. Warfare and disease is rampant, but still thriving when Spanish arrive. |
| Chichen Itza | One of the best known examples of a Post-Classic Maya city, located on the Yucatan peninsula. No evidence of a powerful ruler, but signs of a council. A large and populated city when Spanish colonial forces arrive in 1519. |
| Spanish Conquest | The arrival of Spanish conquistadors across Central and South America during the early 1500s. Caused widespread destruction, death, and culture loss for many different societies in the region. Material record lost and replaced by colonial documents. |
| Maya | A collective term used for numerous cultural and ethnic groups in Mesoamerica (past and present). There are at least 7 million Maya today, with the largest population in the Yucatan Peninsula. |
| Teotihuacan (city) | A large city in the Valley of Mexico. Began as a ceremonial centre ca. 2,000 years ago with the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon. In ca. 1,800 - 1,600, focused on residential development. |
| Teotihuacan (state) | A state society in the Valley of Mexico, ca. 2,000 years ago. Appears to have been ruled by military elites that showed their power through symbols of warriors and warfare. Some suggest it was an empire, but evidence shows elites had limited power |
| Toltec Empire | ca. 1,050 - 850 years ago in Valley of Mexico. Rises after the decline of Teotihuacan, with its core in Tula. See Toltec influence across wider region (even into Yucatan Peninsula) but unclear if this was empire or just influence and interaction. |
| Aztec Empire | First state in Mesoamerica that is clearly an empire, formed by the Aztec, Tepanec, and Mexica through Triple Alliance (ca. 572 years ago). Capital city was Tenochtitlan, where rulers organized invasions, collected tribute, and performed human sacrifices. |
| Tenochtitlan | A large, capital city of the Aztec Empire, said to be founded by the Mexica in Lake Texcoco. Important feature is the Templo Mayor in the heart of the city, it had two temples that were destroyed by Spanish colonization. |
| Triple Alliance | A pact between major cities around 572 years ago. The official founding of the Aztec Empire, headed by the Mexica in Tenochtitlan. After this alliance, the population in the Valley of Mexico increases rapidly as new territories are conquered. |
| Aztec tribute system | The Aztec controlled many territories that were required to offer tribute to the capital city. This included regional resources and specialty crafts. We see evidence of increased craft production across sites, showing the pressure to make tribute |
| Codex/Codices | Written documents from the Spanish colonial period in Central and South America, mostly written by priests who wanted to record local practices and beliefs. Primary source of info on Maya, Aztec, and Inca after destruction of indigenous records. |
| Aztec sacrifice | Ritualized human sacrifice was important in Aztec capital. Said to have ceremonial purposes, but also acted as demonstration of power or force. Likely connected to culture of warfare and invasion in capital, but less influential in wider territories. |
| Aztec figurines | In centre of empire see art focused primarily on male warriors, but the peripheral settlements more often emphasize female figures (like deities and mothers). Shows different practices and beliefs in areas of empire. |
| Inca Empire | ca. 562 - 470 years ago. Also known as Tawantinsuyu, this empire had its capital in Cuzco. Controlled around 12 million people in territories across Ecuador to Chile on coast of South America. |
| Machu Picchu | A well known example of an Inca settlement that shows a royal estate was occupied by people from different parts of the empire. Pottery styles and skeletal remains suggest people came from regions in coast and highlands to serve aristocratic families. |
| Inca rulership | The Inca Empire was ruled by military-based nobles who fought over succession (who would rule next) and built power through conquest. Status was earned by taking territories for resources, trade goods, and populations to administer or build army. |
| Inca roads | A network of built and maintained roadways along the coast of South America that connected the territories of the Inca Empire. Inca power over conquered territories varied, making roads important to move people, information, and goods between settlements. |
| Khipu | A record keeping method used by the Inca Empire, also used for communicating across long distances. Complex collections of knotted string that were carried by relay messengers and encoded with information that has yet to be deciphered. |
| Inca feasts | Feasting and gift giving were important ritual events for the Inca, though unusual for an empire-level society. Wealthy elites shared food and gifts in large feast events, likely to show off their status and gain favour from populations. |
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