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Crime and Deviance
AQA Sociology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Durkheim | Some crime is positive for society - boundary maintenance/ social cohesion by punishment - Adaption and change by crime showing where things need attention/ progression |
| Davis | Crime acts as a safety valve to prevent anomie; acts as an outlet |
| Cohen | Crime indicates where society is not functioning so acts as a warning sign |
| Merton | Focuses on why people commit crimes Crime is a response to the strain society places on them, such as the desire for the American Dream. |
| According to Merton what are the types of strain | Conformity Innovation Rebellion Retreatism Ritualism |
| What did Merton mean by Conformity in his strain theory? | accepting the goals laid out by society and the means to achieve them Even if they have failed to reach the goals in the past |
| What did Merton mean by Innovation in his strain theory? | Accepting the goals but not the means eg crime |
| What did Merton mean by Ritualism in his strain theory? | Following the means but not believing they will achieve the goals |
| What did Merton mean by Rebellion in his strain theory? | Accepting neither the means nor the goal but instead recreating them |
| What did Merton mean by Retreatism in his strain theory? | Accepting neither the goals nor the means |
| Cohen on subcultures | Researched working-class boys and found that they were unable to reach M/c goals which gave them status frustration so they found other means of achieving status |
| Cloward and Ohlin | There are three types of criminal subculture Criminal Conflict Retreatist |
| According to Cloward and Ohlin, what is the criminal subculture? | Inter-city estates Hierarchal, well-established adult criminal role models considered a valid alternative to a job |
| According to Cloward and Ohlin, what is the Conflict subculture? | From areas of high social turnover Different gangs battle for control - chaotic |
| According to Cloward and Ohlin, what is the Retreatist subculture? | Made up of individuals who fail both legitimate and illegitimate means to status, becoming 'double failures' so turn to drug use. |
| Hirschi (1969) | Control theory, strong social bonds stop most people from committing crime such as Belief Involvement (opportunity) Attachment (to others) Commitment (stake in conformity) |
| Box | Ideological law making R/C write laws/ police in ways that reflect their own interests |
| Chambliss | Selective law enforement The CJS focuses disprotoritantley on the Proletarit thus they remain controlled while the ruling class go undetected |
| Pearce | The caring face of capitalism There are laws that appear to be caring for the proletariat but these only help maintain a false class consciousness so the poor can be exploited unwittingly |
| Gordon (1976) | Crime is a rational reaction to capitalist principles such as greed, profit, competition and materialism Thus crime is found in all social classes despite statistics. |
| Becker | Moral Entrepreneurs some who tries to influence our reaction in order to change the law Eg journalists, politicians etc They can remove or apply labels to individuals thus adjusting how others see them |
| Cicourel | Police officers use specifications/ stereotypes to influence how they judge offenders If that individual better fits a criminal stereotype then they are more likely to be arrested. |
| Lemert | Primary and Secondary deviance |
| Define Primary deviance (Lemert) | criminal label not attached |
| Define Secondary deviance (Lemert) | The offender is labelled and faces a large moral response, facing consequences such as punishment which begins a cycle of criminality . |
| Define Deviancy amplification spiral | The result of Lemart's secondary deviance The criminal label, dispersed via the media, may result in more crime |
| Braithwaite | Reintegrative shaming Where the crime is labelled not the person. It avoids stigmatising the individual but makes them aware of the negative impact of their actions |
| What do Right Realists think about crime? | A tough stance on crime is needed (inc tough prevention methods) Tough punishments |
| Murray (bio reasons) | Believes Low intelligence is the main cause of crime |
| Wilson and Hernstein | Bio-social theory Some people are more disposed to crime eg through hormones and personality traits leading to increased risk-taking, impulsivity and aggression |
| Murray (social reasons) | Effective socialisation reduces criminality Welfare dependency increases it esp as single mothers kept afloat by the welfare state are unable to socialise their kids properly so they become part of the underclass of criminals |
| Clarke (1980) | Rational Choice theory Everyone has free will and the power of reason, so criminals are people who have genuinley weighed up the pros and cons of doing a criminal activity and then did it as the rewards were percieved to be higher than the costs |
| What do Left Realists think about crime? | Society should be tough on crime but also tough on the causes of crime |
| What would Left realists suggest to be the causes of crime? | Relative Deprivation (Young) Marginalisation Subcultures (Lea and Young) |
| Young (crime in late modernity) | Relative Deprivation is caused by Weakening informal Controls Growing economic inequality and change Relative deprivation causes criminality |
| Heidensohn | The traditional study of criminology is 'malestream', performed by male theorists obsessed with the exiting and violent ideology surrounding crime But gender is the most interesting point about crime because of gender disparities |
| Percentage of men making up the prison population | 95% |
| percentage of crime reported and recorded as committed by men | 80% |
| Katz | criminals commit crimes for the thrill Men do more crime because this postmodern world bars the way to achieving traditional masculinity and criminality gives them status and clarity in regards to their identity. |
| How much more likely are black people to be stopped and searched by police? | 7 |
| What is the MacPherson report | Accused the Met police of institutional racism and incompetency by not following up on important leads relating to the death of Stephen Lawrence. |
| Holdaway | Canteen Culture Many officers held racist prejudices and would eg make negative and derogatory jokes New recruits would then feel pressurised into conforming to this culture It may then indoctrinate them so they themselves hold these same views |
| Lea and Young | Racism leads to an economic exclusion of ethnic minority groups Meaning they would experience marginalisation, relative deprivation and be part of subcultures = criminality |
| Moynihan | The reason for ethnic minority crime is inadequate socialisation from non-English-speaking parents or single mothers. |
| Hall | Divide and rule ruling class use racism as a tool to divide the Proletariat and prevent revolution The media uses Moral panics about ethnic minority groups that have led to divisons and tensions Eg the portrayal of the black mugger in the 1970s |
| Pollack | Chivalry thesis The CJS treats women more leniently Also, women can escape trouble by being better liars because they have practised by hiding menstruation and orgasms |
| Walklate (women and CJS) | CJS treats women poorly (like criminals) in cases of sexual assault or Domestic violence |
| Heidonsohn (women and CJS) | Doubly deviant Women are treated more harshly in court if they deviate from gender norms eg promiscuity |
| Parsons (women and Criminality) | Sex role theory Women are simply less likely to commit crimes due to socialisation; women are taught they have more to lose from criminality than men (bedroom culture) |
| Heidensohn (Women and criminality) | Patriarchal control prevents women from being criminals Control at home - Domestic commitments in public and at work - sexual violence threat |
| Alder | Liberation theory As women are liberated from patriarchy, they will commit more crime |
| Messerschmidt | Validating resources Some men feel they must display masculine qualities such as strength and aggression etc Crime and violence give them the ability to assert this masculinity when traditional methods eg coal mining is unavailiable |
| Castells | There is a global criminal economy worth over $1trillion a year |
| What are the examples of globalised crime that exist | green crimes cyber crimes Trafficking (arms/people/bits of people) |
| Define globalisation | The increased interconnectedness of people across the world |
| How many organs are estimated to have been taken from executed Chinese criminals a year so that they can be transported abroad | 2,000 |
| Beck (On globalisation) | Global risk consciousness that promotes insecurity and is changing the world |
| Taylor | Globalisation had led to an increase in crime Partly because crimes expand economic gaps which causes more crime Eg transnational countries |
| Wall | 4 types of cyber crime Cyber trespass deception/theft porn violence |
| What did Wall mean by Cyber- trespassing? | Spreading viruses or hacking without permission |
| What did Wall mean by Cyber- deception/theft? | Identity theft or from bank accounts |
| What did Wall mean by Cyber- porn? | Sharing and watching of pornography inc child porn |
| What did Wall mean by Cyber- violence? | causing emotional harm or inciting violence |
| Hobbs and Dunningham | Glocal crime technological developments have given people more access to others who will aid in their crimes Eg global drugs organisations can ensure the drugs will be sold in a local area |
| How does the media distort how we see crime | Over represents violence and sexual crime exaggerates police sucess and intelligence of offenders |
| Cohen and Young | The news is manufactured and therefore unreliable in shaping our views of crime. It is a social construct based on news values |
| What did Cohen and Young give as examples of news values? | Immediacy - eg breaking news Dramatisation Personalisation - relatable High-status victim/offender Simplification Novelty - uniqueness |
| How may the media stimulate criminality | Consumerism Desensitisation Transmitting criminal techniques Imitation Arousal |
| Cohen the media guy | When the media generates an over reaction to a crime it can create a moral panic that identifies a group as 'folk devils' Eg mods and rockers - a scuffle with police was reported as the DAY OF TERROR |
| Define deviance | Actions that go against the norms and values of society (not necessarily against the law) |
| Freud | Beloved everything is born from the subconscious although it's a lack of actual evidence and a bit of victim blaming |
| Bowlby | Maternal Deprivation, deprived by mother's love therefore enters a criminal carers. on the other hand this is out of date, and suffers researcher bias |
| 4 ways in which crime is socially constructed | Historically - changes over time IE gay Contextual - situations Culturally Age- like drinking over age 18 |
| Lombroso | Went into Italian prisons, and found prisoners to be less evolved really crappy everything about this theory. |
| Define social construction | Not naturally occurring but created in the society it's found |
| Define Crime | Action or behaviour against the legislation of the state |
| MAOA gene | warrior gene that may make people more violent so more likely to be criminal. 60% of folks have this gene and it ignores other factors |
| Plummer 1979 | Identified two types of deviance Societal Deviance - Most members of society class it as deviant Situational deviance- act is not deviant depending on situation |
| Reiman (2001) | Selective law enforcement Situational deviance- act is not deviant depending on situation So R/c commit more crimes yet unlikely to be treated as a criminal. eg difference in dealings with social security fraud and tax evasion/low taxes for wealthy |
| South | There are two types of green crime Primary Secondary |
| According to South what are Primary Green Crimes | Crimes that result diewctly from the destruction and degradatuin of the Earth's resources Species Decline Water Pollution Air Pollution Deforestation |
| According to South what are Secondary Green Crimes | Refusing to obey rules designed to protect the Environment State Violence against oppositional groups Disposal of toxic waste |
| Walters | 2x as many people die from air pollution-induced illnesses compared to 20 years ago |
| Between 1960 and 1990 how much of the rainforest has been destroyed | 20% |
| How many people on Earth lack access to clean drinking water? | 1/2 a billion |
| How many people die from drinking contaminated water a year? | 25 million |
| What did the French govt do in 1985? | Attacked a green peace vessel that was blocking a nuclear testing site |
| White (2008) | Anthropocentric views law protects the offenders more than environment because anthropomorphic bias eg feel we have dominion over the planet and its resources Laws are also different across countries so no country can really protect themselves |
| Situ and Emmons (2000) | The traditional view of environmental crime Anything that breaks the law is a crime but it if it is not a crime legally it is not a crime, even if it causes harm |
| Green and Ward | Define state crime as illegal or deviant activities perpetuated by or with the complicity of the state |
| According to Green and Ward (2012) how many people were murdered by govts in the 20th century | 262 million |
| McLaughlin (2012) (dangers of state crime) | The scope of state crime is huge becuae the state's power over a large amount of people and the military It is also dangerous because the state makes the laws so they can legalise or conceal their actions |
| What are the 4 types of state crime according to McLaughlin? | Political - Corruption/ censorship Economic - official violations of health and safety laws Social and Cultural - racism Crimes by Police and security - police brutality/ genocide/ torture |
| Adorno | Some people have an authoritarian personality which makes them very vulnerable to following state orders and thus doing horrific things such as in Nazi Germany |
| Schwendinger (1975) | Defines state crime as acts committed by the state that undermines people's human rights |
| Cohen (on state crime) | "regrettable but justifiable" Re-labelling state crime as something else eg part of the conflict eg Western Powers considering innocent human beings 'collateral' to better stop terrorists in Syria |
| According to Cohen (2006) what are the stages of state denial of state crime? | It didn't happen It it did happen it was something else It was totally justified Eg Tory parties in Lockdown |
| Foucault 1979. Types of State | Before the 19th century there was Sovereign rulership - control through punishment and emotional, brutal spectacles Now we see the rise of the Disciplinary state that aims to closely monitor people and to rehabilitate deviant individuals |
| Foucault (physical surveillance) | Illustrates theory via the Panopticon - a round prison where inmates are led to believe they are always being watched to promote self-regulation Surveillance turns into self surveillance and discipline turns into self discipline |
| Felson | Situational crime prevention can 'design crime out' of an area. He had subways in NY redesigned eg smaller cubicles and crime decreased as it became greater risk to commit them |
| Chaiken et al | Critical of Felson Situational crime prevention actually displaces crime eg when NY restrooms were less crime friendly, it moved that crime onto the streets above |
| According to Clarke what are the key features of Situational Crime prevention? | 1) Directed at specific crimes eg burglary 2) altering immediate environment 3) Increases effort needed and risks of committing crime |
| Wilson and Kelling (1982) | Broken Windows theory basically crime will reduce with gentrification if things look bad, the respectable people will leave and cause the area to go on a spiral of decline |
| Schweinhart | Longitudinal 'Perry Preschool Project' 2 year intellectual enrichment programs and weekly home visits for kids aged 3-4 40 years later it was found the ppts were much more successful and had fewer arrests than the control group |
| Durkheim (punishment) | Punishment is expressive and heals the community by expressing outrage - also the rituals of deciding justice (rituals of order) establish social cohesion Eg Retributive Justice in traditional societies and Restitutive Justice in modern society |
| What is the purpose of Punishment according to Marxists? | CJS selectively enforces the law on the w/c and acts as a repressive state apparatus by scaring the w/c into submission they are also cheap labour for the state |
| Melossi and Pavarini (1981) | Capitalism puts a price on worker's time so you 'do time' in prison to 'repay' your dept to society Prisons are also like factories IE built to make profit by having prisoners produce goods at minimal costs. esp private prisons in USA |
| What do Postmodernists think about Punishment | Local and community based initiatives are on the rise as people find their own ways to deal with modern crime |
| What is the recidivism rate? | 2/3 |
| David Downes (2001) | US prisons soak up about 30-40% of the unemployed - they are not credited in employment statistics so it makes capitalism seem successful |
| UN definition of a victim | Those who have suffered harm through acts or omissions that violate state laws |
| Hans Von Hentig (Positivist) | There are 13 characteristics that make someone more likely to be a victim Inc age gender mental state nationality etc |
| Wolfgang (1958) | Study of homicides in Philadelphia found 26% of 588 involved Victim precipitation eg the victim triggered the events |
| Mawby and Walklate (1994) | Critical Victimologists victimisation is a form of 'structural powerlessness' eg women are more likely to be the victim of sexual crimes due to patriarchal reasons |
| Tombs and Whyte | Critical Victimologists Hierarchy of Victimisation Argued Employers tend to manipulate health and safety crimes the victim is blamed for a mistake rather the company taking responsibility for negligence |
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