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MCAT Psych/Soc Terms
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| macro-level theories | theories that focus on the effects of large-scale social structures |
| micro-level theories | theories that focus on small-scale individual considerations, most prominently one-on-one and small-group interactions |
| functionalism | the model that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different interrelated and interdependent parts, each of which has a distinct and necessary part |
| functionalism | name the theory: - macro level - negative feedback theory - societies can evolve - Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim - capacity to maintain social order is paramount to functional success - dynamic equilibrium |
| dynamic equilibrium | when a healthy society faces an imbalance or crisis, the major structures of societies will work together to return to a state of _________ _________ |
| social facts | elements that serve some function in a society such as laws, values, morals, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up a society |
| collective conscience | how people of a shared culture come to think in the same manner due to their shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes, all of which operate to unify society |
| manifest functions | official, intended, and anticipated consequences of a structure |
| latent functions | consequences of a structure that are not officially sought or sanctioned |
| social dysfunctions | a process that has undesirable consequences and may actually reduce the stability of a society |
| conflict theory | the theory that focuses on parts of societies that work against each other in competition for limited resources |
| conflict theory | name the theory: - macro level - positive-feedback theory - Marx and Weber - class consciences - false conscience - rationalization |
| class conscience | when subordinate classes become aware of their status and band together against the wealthy |
| false conscience | when subordinate classes of a society lack awareness which creates a further division of subordinate classes |
| rationalization | societies trend toward increasing efficiency and away from traditional religious standards - ideal bureaucracy |
| symbolic interactionism | a theory that describes society as stemming from individuals who connect with each other using culturally learned symbols |
| symbolic interactionism | name the theory: - micro level - Mead - symbols and language -people act on things based on meaning, which is derived from social interactions and adopted thru individual interpretations |
| symbols | culturally derived social objects that have shared meanings, which are created and maintained via social interactions |
| generalized other | organized, generalized attitude of a large social group |
| me | the term dedicated to the part of self that is developed via interactions with others; consists of interpretations of jow the generalized other views us; concerned |
| i | the term dedicated to the part of self that comes from individuality and personal identity; arises in response to "me"; spontaneous and individualistic |
| looking glass self | describes how one's self or social identity is dependent on one's appearance to others; The reactions of others to ourselves provide us with feedback about ourselves of the most direct sort; positive-feedback loop |
| social constructionism | the theory that states that individual interaction results in socially agreed-upon "constructs" which leads to the development of society and reality |
| social constructionism | name the theory: - can be both micro and macro level - societies evolve via systems of collective symbolic/mean-making - social constructs for a reality --> humans created their reality |
| exchange-rational theory | a theory that states that individuals act based on the costs and benefits; can be both micro and macro level |
| feminism | a theory that states that women deserve rights that are politically, socially, and economically equal to men |
| feminism | name the theory: - both micro and macro level - third-wave focused on intersectionality - glass elevator and glass ceiling |
| intersectionality | study of how different social identities such as gender, race, class, ethnicity, etc. interact |
| glass elevator | refers to the way men are often fast-tracked to advanced positions when entering primarily "pink collar" jobs |
| glass ceiling | artificial, unseen, and often unacknowledged discriminatory barrier that prevents otherwise marginalized people such as women and minorities from rising to positions of leadership and power |
| anomie | lack of common conscience; mismatch between standards, beliefs, ideals, morals, etc. which causes dysfunction in society and individuals feel isolated/disconnected |
| experimental design | - random sampling and assignment - control of extraneous variables - manipulation of treatment |
| non-experimental design | ethnographic studies, twin studies, heritability, historical/archival studies, phenomenological studies, case studies, longitudinal studies |
| quantitative | __________________ measurements are both numeric and objective |
| longitudinal | repeated measurements >3 times (eg. daily, weekly, monthly) are associated with _________________ studies |
| comparative | ______________________ methodology are quasi-experiments that would qualify as experimental design but LACKS random assignment |
| impression management | participants adapt their responses based on social norms or perceived researcher expectation - self-fulfilling prophecy - methodology is not double-blind - Hawthorne effect |
| confounding variables | extraneous variables not accounted for in the study - another variable offers an alternative explanation for results - lack of useful control |
| lack of reliability | measurement tools do not measure what they purport to - lack consistency |
| sampling bias | selection criteria is not random - population used for sample doesn't meet conditions for statistical test |
| attrition effects | participants drop out of study (fatigue) |
| internal validity | extent to which the outcome variable is due to the intervention |
| construct validity | how well a set of indicators represent or reflect a concept that is not directly measurable - questioning it means model is off |
| operational definition | statement of procedures the researcher is going to use in order to measure a specific variable |
| social institutions | standardized sets of social norms organized to preserve a societal value - education, family, religion, health/medicine, government - stability guards against anomie |
| education | a social institution dubbed the "great equalizer" in which it often helps individuals increase their SES and promotes equality |
| equality | Education Promoting ______________ - negative correlation between avg. years of schooling and income inequality |
| inequality | Education Promoting _________________ - hidden curriculum - teacher expectancy - educational segregation - educational stratification |
| hidden curriculum | unintentional lessons about norms/values/beliefs |
| teacher expectancy | students tend to match teacher expectations (positive and negative) |
| educational segregation | the widening disparity between children from high income neighborhoods and low income neighborhoods due to taxes |
| educational stratification | Separation of students into groups on the basis of academic achievement |
| family | related individuals by a socially-defined set of relationships like birth, marriage, or adoption |
| religion | involves beliefs and practices related to the sacred and the profane shared by an organized group |
| iron law of oligarchy | all forms of organization will eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies especially in large groups and complex organizations |
| ideal bureaucracy | - neutrality/impersonality - hierarchal structure - division of labor - written rules and expectation - officials hired and promoted on technical competence |
| mcdonaldization | focuses on increasing efficiency, calculability, predictability, control and/or use of non-human labor - ideal bureaucracy being applied to private sector of society |
| medicalization | process through which human conditions are defined and treated as medical conditions |
| availability | healthcare _______________ refers to whether a resource even exists in one's vicinity (without a waiting list that makes it effectively unavailable) - affected by urbanization |
| accessibility | healthcare _______________ refers to whether one have sufficient insurance/money/transportation/social support to even obtain a resource |
| institutional discrimination | when a social structure engages in discriminatory practices against an individual or group |
| epidemiology | the study of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations |
| social epidemiology | study of the social determinants of health and the use of social concepts to explain patterns of health in the population |
| social condition | social determinants of health such as availability of food supplies, drug use, access to quality education, unemployment, crime rates, and access to healthcare |
| social isolation | a complete/ near complete lack of contact with people and society for members of social spears - opposite of social support |
| socioeconomic gradient in health | theory that there is a proportional increase in health and health outcomes as socioeconomic status increases - aka. social gradient in health |
| malthusian theory | unchecked population growth would quickly exceed carrying capacity, leading to overpopulation and catastrophes such as famine or war |
| demographic transition theory | societies transition from high birth and high death rates to low birth and low death rates - more data supports this |
| pre-industrial stage | stage in demographic transition - high birth rate - high death rate - growth slow (expansion) |
| industrial revolution | stage in demographic growth characterized by - high birth rate - low death rate - growth fast (expansion) |
| post-industrial phase | stage in demographic growth characterized by - low birth rate - low death rate - population stabilizes (stationary) |
| gender, sex | ______________ is based on personal identification whereas _____________ is based on objective identification (XX or XY) (2 answers, separate by comma) |
| race, ethnicity | __________________ is based on phenotypic identification whereas _________________ is based on cultural identification (2 answers, separate by comma) |
| racial | blacks, whites, indigenous peoples, and Asians are all examples of ______________ groups |
| ethnic | Jews, Argentinians, and Persians are all examples of ______________ groups |
| dependency ratio | number of retired (non-working people) : number of working people |
| residential segregation | physical separation of groups into different areas, typically along the lines of race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status |
| environmental injustice | when low SES and minority groups tend to live in areas where environmental hazards and toxins are disproportionally high |
| food desert | an area typically in a highly populated, lower-income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find |
| prejudice | preconceived judgments toward someone based on group membership - BELIEF, NOT BEHAVIOR |
| discrimination | biased treatment of an individual based on group membership - BEHAVIOR, NOT BELIEF |
| absolute poverty | inability to secure the basic necessities of life |
| relative poverty | inability to meet the average standard of living defined by a given society |
| caste system | - lower social mobility - less dependent on effort - social status defined by birth |
| class system | - some degree of social mobility - social status determined by birth and individual merit |
| meritocracy | - higher social mobility - more dependent on effort - social status based on individual merit |
| social reproduction | Transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next |
| intergenerational social mobility | upward or downward social mobility of children in relation to their parents |
| intragenerational social mobility | social mobility occurring during a person's lifetime |
| structural mobility | everyone in a society experiences upward or downward social mobility |
| physical | _______________ capital involves money, property, land, stocks, etc. |
| social | ______________ capital involves fame and one's social network - the hardest to measure for individuals |
| cultural | ____________ capital involves educational degrees, athletic/artistic talent, and personal achievements (ie. dean's list) |
| master status | role or position that dominates; this tends to determine your general "place" in society - doctor, NBA player, president |
| ascribed status | role or position assigned to you by society regardless of your effort - tall, ginger, patient, white |
| achieved status | role or position that you've earned - doctor, PhD, Olympic gold medalist |
| role | socially defined expectation about how you will behave based on your status |
| role conflict | conflict among the roles connected to two or more statuses |
| role strain | tension among the roles connected to a single status |
| role exit | transition from one role to another |
| primary | _________________________ group - usually smaller - close, personal, shared activities/cultures - longer-term - goal is the relationships themselves - families, close friends |
| secondary | ________________ group - usually larger - impersonal, goal-oriented relationships - shorter-term - goal is to accomplish a specific task/perform a function - athletic teams, coworkers |
| impression management | self-preservation; people manage their own image by influencing perception of others |
| dramaturgical | _________________ perspective is a part of symbolic interactionism and it states a person's goal is to present an acceptable self to others: frontstage and backstage |
| frontstage | when we craft the way we come across to others we are displaying _______________ behavior: nurses with their patients |
| backstage | when we let our guard down and act like our true selves, we are displaying _____________ behavior: nurses in the break room |
| self-concept | self-identity, self-construction; includes all your beliefs and traits; personal + social identities |
| self-schemas | beliefs and ideas you have about yourself; eg. I am pretty, I am a gymnast, I am nice |
| self-efficacy | how good you think you are at something; you're self assessment; high = i'm good at it low = i'm bad at it |
| self-clarity | you have an accurate assessment of your various self-efficacies |
| locus of control | whether you think you have control over a situation; internal = i have control external = i dont have control |
| learned helplessness | behavior exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control --> individual has low self-efficacy and external locus of control |
| aversive control | occurs when behavior is motivated by the reality/threat of something unpleasant happening --> achieved via avoidance learning/conditioning; 2 types: escape behavior and avoidance behavior |
| escape behavior | the termination of an unpredicted, unpleasant stimulus that has already occurred; eg. close eyes at unexpected bright light |
| avoidance behavior | avoidance of a predictable, unpleasant stimulus before it is initiated; eg. wear sunglasses on a sunny day |
| social learning | when someone observes some else doing something and they mimic it; aka. observational learning |
| social learning theory | this theory states that learning takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation even in absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement |
| reference group | a group of people in which you want to model your behavior after or a group of people you can compare yourself to |
| social comparison theory | the human drive to gain an accurate evaluation of ourselves by comparing ourselves to others; identity will be shaped by comparisons and reference groups |
| perspective-taking | _____________-______________ is the ability to understand the cognitive and affective (emotional) aspects of another persons POV; requires both vicarious emotion and empathy |
| preconventional | the ______________ stage of moral identity: - young kids - kids - first major stage |
| punishment | ___________ and obedience stage: - first stage of the moral identity theory - rules obeyed to avoid punishment - young children |
| self-interest | _____-___________ stage - second stage of moral identity - rules obeyed for personal gain - kids |
| conventional | the ______________ stage of moral identity - adolescents and adults - second major stage |
| conformity | ______________ and interpersonal accord stage: - third stage of moral identity - rules obeyed for approval from others - adolescents |
| authority | _____________ and social order stage - fourth stage of moral identity - rules obeyed to maintain social order - adults |
| post-conventional | the ______________ stage of moral identity: - very few people - third major stage |
| contract | social __________ stage - fifth stage of moral identity - impartial rules observed --> rules that infringe on rights of others are challenged |
| universal | ______________ principles stage - sixth and final stage of moral identity - individual establishes own set of rules in accordance with personal, ethical principles - Ghandi |
| social facilitation | personal performance improves when people are observing; aka. mere presence effect; for well-practiced tasks you are good at; high arousal --> high performance |
| social inhibition | personal performance declines when people are observing; for stressful tasks that are new; moderate arousal --> high performance |
| deindividuation | in situations with high degree of arousal and low degree of personal responsibility, we may lose our sense of restraint and individual identity, thereby aligning our behavior with the group; mob mentality |
| bystander effect | most people are less likely to help a victim when others are present |
| diffusion of responsibility | tendency that in a large group, individuals will be less likely to act/take responsibility; explains bystander effect and social loafing |
| social loafing | when people work in a group, each person is likely to exert less individual effort than if they were working independently |
| peer pressure | individual feels directly/indirectly pressured to change their behavior to match their peer; can be positive or negative; must by peer group |
| groupthink | when the group is pressured to reach a consensus, the group does not critically evaluate before making a decision; snap decision |
| group polarization | when a group of people who share the same views on an issue discuss the issue, they tend to become more extreme and entrenched in those views; positive feedback driven by echo chamber |
| conformity | when individuals adjust their behavior/thinking based on the behavior/think of others in order to "fit in" |
| obedience | individuals tend to yield to explicit instructions/orders of authority figures |
| fundamental attribution error | we attribute another person's behavior to their personality; eg. he is yelling at the cashier = he is a bad person |
| actor-observer error | when we attribute our own actions to the situation; eg. I'm yelling at the cashier because he wrongly double charged me |
| optimism bias | we believe bad things happen to other people, but not to ourselves |
| self-serving bias | we believe good results for ourselves are the product of our own actions but bad results for ourselves are the product of the situation |
| just world belief | we believe bad things happens to others because of their own actions/inactions; eg, she was SA-ed because she was wearing something revealing |
| dispositional | based on the ultimate attribution error, when someone in the in-group exhibits good behavior, we believe it is a result of that persons behavior/personality = ___________ attribution |
| situational | based on the ultimate attribution error, when someone in the in-group exhibits bad behavior, we believe it is rare and the exception = __________________ attribution |
| dispositional | based on the ultimate attribution error, when someone in the out-group exhibits bad behavior, we believe it is a result of their behavior/personality = _________________ attribution |
| situational | based on the ultimate attribution error, when someone in the out-group exhibits good behavior, we believe this is rare and the exception = ___________________ attribution |
| self-fulfilling prophecy | occurs when an individual unknowingly/unintentionally causes something to happen simply because they expect it to happen |
| stereotype threat | occurs when people are in situations in which they are at risk of confirming negative stereotypes; eg, when a blonde girl is asked to come to the board to solve a difficult math problem; associated with negative stereotypes |
| stereotype boost | occurs when people perform better when exposed to positive stereotype; eg. Asian kid is asked to come to the board to solve a difficult math problem; aka. stereotype lift |
| persuasion | a powerful way to influence other's thinking/actions |
| message | ____________ characteristics are the features of the persuasive argument itself; logic, key points, and grammatical complexity |
| source | _____________ characteristics are the features of the persuasive argument that include the person/venue delivering the message; expertise, knowledge, trustworthiness |
| target | _____________ characteristics are the features of the persuasive argument that depend on the person receiving the message; self-esteem, intelligence, mood |
| central | based on the elaboration likelihood model, the ___________ route is taken when the audience focuses on the argument itself |
| peripheral | based on the elaboration likelihood model, the ___________ route is taken when the audience focuses on the superficial/secondary characteristics of the argument |
| high | a person with _________ motivation and ability to think about the message is going to take the central route |
| low | a person with _________ motivation and ability to think about the message is going to take the peripheral route |
| secure | type of attachment style characterized by: - toddler explore place when mom present --> cry when mom leaves --> quickly consoled when mom returns - toddler is sensitive and responsive to caregiver |
| ambivalent | type of attachment style characterized by: - toddler remains upset even after mom returns --> clings to mom while simultaneously hitting her - type of insecure attachment style |
| avoidant | type of attachment style characterized by: - toddler seems indifferent to mom's departure and return although they are still stressed - type of insecure attachment style |
| disorganized | type of attachment style characterized by: - toddler cannot predict mom's behavior --> demonstrate unpredictable, inconsistent, bizarre behavior - eg. walks to mom with head turned 180 degrees away from mom - type of insecure attachment style |
| cognitive dissonance | this theory states that we feel tension whenever we hold 2 thoughts/beliefs that are compatible; our attitudes and behaviors don't match |
| A | which one are me more likely to change? A. our attitudes to match our behaviors B. our behaviors to match our attitudes |
| affect, behavior, cognition | The 3 components of attitude A - feelings/emotions toward a thing B - internal/external response to a thing C - thoughts/beliefs about a thing |
| five factor model | this is the most popular model of assessment for psychology research to determine traits and personality; aka. OCEAN model |
| openness to experience | Five Factor (OCEAN) Model pillar high: embraces new ideas and experiences; values differences in people low: prefers familiarity over novelty; conservative; resistant to change |
| conscientiousness | Five Factor (OCEAN) Model pillar high: values competence and order; manages time well; strives to achieve low: disorganized; unmotivated; irresponsible |
| extraversion | Five Factor (OCEAN) Model pillar high: outgoing; energized by social interactions low: prefers solitary; drained by social interactions |
| agreeableness | Five Factor (OCEAN) Model pillar high: good team player; thinks of others; goes with the flow; polite; doesn't demand attention low: bad team player; high maintenance; likely holds strong opinions |
| neuroticism | Five Factor (OCEAN) Model pillar high: lots of negative responses to stress; anxiety; fear; anger; can be impulsive low: experiences more positive emotions; copes well with stress |
| life couse | this personality perspective involves a multidisciplinary approach developed to understand how earlier life stages of life can influence outcomes during later life stages |
| psychoanalytic | this personality perspective asserts that personality is shaped largely by the unconscious; mental illness isa result of unconscious conflicts which often stem from childhood; Freud; Erikson |
| libido | this aspect that motivates behavior (suggested by Freud) is the life drive, focuses of pleasure, survival, and avoidance of pain |
| death drive | this aspect that motivates behavior (suggested by Freud) focuses on destructive behaviors and underlies that desire to hurt oneself/others |
| id | the part of your mind that's largely unconscious; desire to avoid pain and receive pleasure; libido + inner child; based on the beasts we evolved from |
| ego | the part of your mind that's the logical thinking and planning part as we deal with reality; compromises between id and superego |
| superego | this part of your mind involves moral judgements of right and wrong; strives for perfection; based on rules of civilization |
| psychosexual | Freuds stages of development are ______________ whereas Erikson's are psychosocial |
| oral | first stage of Freud's 5 Stages of Development; years 0-1 sucking, chewing, eating, babbling successful resolution = weaning fixation = oral aggression (verbal abuse) or passivity (smoking) |
| anal | second stage of Freud's 5 Stages of Development; years 1-3 bladder and bowel control successful resolution = potty training fixation = anal retention (overly near) or expulsion (disorganized) |
| phallic | third stage of Freud's 5 Stages of Development; years 3-6 focus on presence/absence of penis Successful retention = gender identification Fixation = difficulty with intimate relationships |
| oepidus | _________ complex refers to the son's sexual attitude towards his mother and concomitant hostility toward his father; develops during phallic stage |
| electra | ___________ complex refers to the daughter's sexual attitude towards her father and concomitant hostility toward her mother; develops during phallic stage |
| latency | fourth stage of Freud's 5 Stages of Development; years 6-12 not characterized by anything really successful resolution = social interaction fixation = arrested development |
| genital | fifth and final stage of Freud's 5 Stages of Development; years 12+ focus on other people's genitals (reproduction and pleasure) successful resolution = intimate relationships fixation = sexual/intimacy issues |
| trust | ____________ v. mistrust first stage of Erikson's stages of development years 0-1 former = infants needs are met latter = infants needs are not met |
| autonomy | ___________ v. shame second stage of Erikson's stages of development years 1-3 former = child learns self control latter = child remains dependent |
| initiative | ___________ v. guilt third stage of Erikson's stages of development years 3-6 former = child achieves purpose latter = child thwarted in efforts |
| industry | _____________ v. inferiority fourth stage of Erikson's stages of development years 6-12 former = child gains competence latter = child feels imcompetent |
| identity | ________________ v. role confusion fifth stage of Erikson's stages of development years 12-18 former = adolescent learns sense of self latter = adolescent lacks their own identity |
| intimacy | ___________ v. isolation sixth stage of Erikson's stages of development years 18-39 former = YAs develop mature relationships latter = YAs unable to form social ties |
| generativity | ______________ v. stagnation seventh stage of Erikson's stages of development years 40-60 former = adult contributes to others/society latter = adult feels like life is meaningless |
| integrity | ____________ v. despair eigth stage of Erikson's stages of development years 60+ former = developed wisdom re: lifetime latter = feels unaccomplished |
| humanistic | this personality perspective states that humans are driven by an actualizing tendency to realize their highest potential; personality conflicts arise when this is somehow thwarted; Carl Rogers |
| unconditional | self-actualization is more likely accomplished when parents exhibit _____________, positive regard |
| behaviorist | this personality perspective states that personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on our environment; B.F. Skinner; personality is deterministic because people begin as blank slates |
| social cognitive | this personality perspective states that personality is a result of reciprocal interactions among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors; Bandura |
| Bandura | he was the first one to prove observational learning experimentally (just last name); most closely associated with social cognitive personality perspective |
| vicarious | ___________ reinforcement describes how children are more likely to imitate behaviors that others were rewarded for |
| trait | this personality perspective states that personality is a result of traits, which are habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that are relatively stable over time; OCEAN model |
| cardinal | these types of traits are rare and develop later in life; dominate an individual's life often to the point that the person becomes known specifically for that trait; apart of trait personality perspective |
| central | ___________ traits are general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality; describe people across different situations; apart of trait personality perspective |
| secondary | _____________ traits are sometimes related to attitudes and preferences; dependent on the situation; apart of trait personality perspective |
| biological | this personality perspective states that personality is a result of differences in brain biology; nature > nurture |
| motivation | this is the driving forces that causes us to act or behave in certain ways; includes instincts, drives, needs, and arousal (DINA) |
| instincts | these are unlearned behaviors in fixed patterns throughout a species; eg. desire to deal with crying baby; a factor of motivation |
| drives | these are urges originating from physiological discomfort, such as hunger pangs or dry throat; factor of motivation |
| arousal | this factor of motivation includes restlessness, boredom, or curiosity and motivate us to do something even when other needs are met |
| drive-reduction | the _____________ - ______________ theory of motivation that physiological needs create an aroused that that drives an organism to address that need by engaging in some behavior that will reduce the arousal; negative feedback loop; aka. intrinsic |
| intrinsic | ___________ motivation describes internal motivation resulting from physiological drives and that you find the activity inherently rewarding in some way |
| extrinsic | _____________ motivation refers to being motivated to do an activity because you think this activity can get you something you want, such as money, success, or popularity |
| physiological, esteem | Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 1. ______________ needs (water, food, shelter 2. safety needs (employment) 3. love and belonging (marriage, friendships) 4. __________ needs ( confidence, achievement, respect from others) 5. self-actualization |
| James-Lange | _________ - _________ Theory of emotion - physiological arousal causes emotion - stimulus --> physiological response --> emotion |
| Cannon-Bard | __________-____________ theory of emotion - emotion and physiological response happen simultaneously - stimulus --> emotion AND physiological response |
| Schacter-Singer | _________ - ____________ theory of emotion (Two Factor Theory) - emotion is determined by arousal and context - stimulus --> physiological response --> cognitive interpretation --> emotion |
| optimal arousal | this theory of emotion (aka. Yerkes-Dodson Law) states that there is an optimal level of emotional arousal for performance |
| simple | based on the optimal theory of arousal, a _________ task is correlated with high arousal and strong performance; focused attention, flashbulb memory, fear conditioning |
| difficult | based on the optimal theory of arousal, a _________ task is correlated with a bell curve graph between arousal and performance; impairment of divided attention; working memory; decision making and multitasking |
| happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, disgust | The six universal emotions (HSSFAD) are emotions expressed by all normally developing humans across all cultures |
| general adaption syndrome | stress resistance curve (GAS) not stressor depend - y-axis = stress resistance - x-axis (L--> R) = alarm (symp NS, ↑ E and ↑ alertness) --> resistance (adaptation, parasymp NS, calms and repairs) --> exhaustion (chronic stress, weakened immune system) |
| social support | the perception or reality that one is a member of a supportive social network in which support can be emotional, tangible, informational, or companionable; plays major roles in stress management; 2 models |
| buffering | the _________ hypothesis is the first model of social support and states that social support serves as a protective layer creating psychological distance between a person and stressful events; indirect effects |
| direct effects | the ________ __________ hypothesis of social support states that social support provides better heath and wellness benefits --. healthier people are able to better handle stress |
| mental disorders | a set of behavioral/psychological symptoms that are not in keeping with social norms and are severe enough to cause significant personal distress or impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning; diagnosable; treatable |
| disordered | ____________ behavior is - unusual - maladaptive - characterized by perceptual/cognitive dysfunction - labeled as abnormal by the society in which it occurs |
| anxiety | ____________ disorders are a family of disorders characterized by excessive fear and/or worry, avoidance behaviors, and sympathetic activation in the absence of a threat |
| anxiety | phobias, panic disorder, SAD, and GAD are specific diagnoses of ____________ disorder |
| phobia | this disorder is characterized by a very specific fear; can be situational, natural environment, blood, injection, injury, or animal based; usually display avoidant behaviors |
| panic disorder | this disorder is characterized by panic attacks; can be mistaken as a heart attack |
| social anxiety disorder | this disorder is characterized by fear/anxiety surrounding social situations |
| generalized anxiety disorder | this disorder is characterized by excessive anxiety without a specific cause; it is the most common anxiety disorder |
| anxiety | sedatives/tranquilizers and sometimes SSRIs are used to treat ___________ disorders |
| depressive | ____________ disorders are a family of disorders characterized by sad, empty, and/or irritable moods, fatigue/loss of energy |
| major depressive | __________ ____________ disorder is characterized by depressive/irritable mood, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness/guilt, indecisiveness, insomnia/hypersomnia, anhedonia, suicidal thoughts, significant weight gain/loss |
| anhedonia | the lost of interest/pleasure in almost all activities |
| monoamine hypothesis | depression predicts that the underlying pathophysiological basis of depression is a depletion in the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine in the CNS (brain) |
| serotonin | this neurotransmitter controls sleep/wake, hunger/satiation, aggression/calmness, and a calm good mood |
| increases | MAOIs __________ levels of primary neurotransmitters in the CNS |
| SSRIs | these drugs keep serotonin from being reabsorbed by neurons; common therapy for depressive disorders |
| bipolar | ___________ disorder is the family of disorders that bridge between psychotic and depressive disorders; involves manic and depressive ossicles/episodes |
| oscillations | when there is no period of normalcy between manic and depressive states, the patient is experiencing bipolar ____________ |
| episodes | when there is a period of normalcy between manic and depressive states, the patient is experiencing bipolar ___________ |
| manic | the ________ phase is characterized by high energy, high self-esteem, racing thoughts, quick talking, impulsivity, and irritability |
| depressive | the ________ phase is characterized by low energy, low self-esteem, lack of concentration, loss of interest, helplessness, and suicidal thoughts |
| I | Bipolar ___ Disorder is characterized by full-blown bouts of mania |
| II | Bipolar ___ Disorder is characterized by full-blown bouts of depression |
| schizophrenic, psychotic | ___________ and ___________ disorders are a family of disorders characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and thoughts, a general detachment from objective reality |
| months, life | schizophreniform disorder only last for ________ while schizophrenia lasts throughout ________ |
| schizoaffective | ____________ disorder is a mix of schizophrenia and bipolar/depressive (mood) disorders |
| positive | ____________ symptoms of schizophrenia: psychotic behaviors not seen in healthy people, such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech/behavior |
| negative | ____________ symptoms of schizophrenia: disruption of normal emotions and behaviors/absence of normal patterns, such as avolition, flattened affect, decreased speed and/or interactions |
| cognitive | ____________ symptoms of schizophrenia: thought patterns that make it hard to lead a normal life and causes emotional distress such as poor executive functioning, trouble focusing, and problems with working memory |
| schizophrenia | biological markers of ___________ include excessive/wildly fluctuating dopamine levels and enlarged ventricles (gaps in the cerebral cortex) |
| antipsychotics | the standard treatment for schizophrenia are ______________ which tone down brain activity |
| trauma, stressor | ___________ and ___________ related disorders are a family of disorders that stem from exposure to a traumatic/stressful event and include a wide variety of symptoms |
| acute stress | _________ __________ disorder can be thought of as temporary PTSD |
| adjustment | ____________ disorder is characterized by PTSD-like symptoms in response to stressors like a breakup, moving apartments, or losing a job |
| personality | ______________ disorders are a family of disorders characterized by enduring (lifelong) patterns of inflexible behaviors across a rand of settings and relationships; diagnosis begins in adolescence; high comorbidity rates |
| cluster a | this type of personality disorder is characterized by odd/eccentric behaviors (weird) |
| paranoid | __________ PD is characterized by someone who is overly suspicious; cluster A |
| schizoid | __________ PD is characterized by social withdrawal and flattened effect; cluster A |
| schizotypal | ____________ PD is characterized by mild schizophrenia; cluster A |
| cluster b | this type of personality disorder is characterized by dramatic/erratic behaviors (wild) |
| antisocial | _____________ PD is characterized by sociopathy, no regard for others, lack of empathy, jerk; cluster B |
| borderline | _____________ PD is characterized by sever abandonment anxiety and emotional turbulence (huge mood swings); cluster B |
| histronic | ____________ PD is characterized by overdramatic attention seeking and emotional overreaction; cluster B |
| narcissistic | ____________ PD is characterized by an inflated sense of self and ego, lack of empathy; cluster B |
| cluster c | this type of personality disorder is characterized by anxious/fearful behaviors (worried) |
| avoidant | ____________ PD is characterized by extreme shyness and fear of rejection |
| dependent | ____________ PD is characterized by over-dependence on others to meet needs |
| obsessive-compulsive | ______________-___________ PD is characterized by rigid concern with order and perfection, nice to superiors, mean to subordinates, workaholic |
| obsessive-compulsive | ____________-_______________ disorders are a family of disorders characterized by consistent thoughts/urges and/or repetitive behaviors; if they can't follow through they have feelings of doom/dread |
| obsessive-compulsive | body dysmorphia, hoarding disorder, and trichotillomania are all examples of ___________ -_____________ disorder |
| somatic symptom | ________ ________ disordesr are a family of disorders characterized by excessive and/or medically unexplainable symptoms; commonly encountered in primary care; hypochondria with reported symptoms of diagnosable illness |
| illness anxiety | __________ __________ disorder is characterized by the extreme fear of becoming ill but currently no reported symptoms |
| conversion | ___________ disorder is characterized by symptoms without any physical cause, such as trouble moving/speaking (severe) |
| facticious | ____________ disorder is characterized by lying about/causing your own illness; includes Munchausen syndrome |
| dissociative | _____________ disorders are a family of disorders characterized by disruptions and/or discontinuities in core identity; abnormal integration of consciousness, identity, emotion, etc. |
| DID | _______ (abbv.) is also known as split personality disorder or multiple identity disorder |
| amnesia | dissociative ____________ is characterized by missing autobiographical information; a prime example is when someone wanders from a group and shows up somewhere else forgetting who they were and everything about their life |
| depersonalization | ________________/derealization disorder is characterized by thoughts of either "I'm not in control of my own body" or "I'm in a dream world" |
| neurodevelopmental | ___________________ disorders are a family of disorders that manifest early in development, usually before grade school, and are characterized by intellectual disability and communication disorders |
| ADHD | ________ (abbv.) is a type of neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by motor restlessness, difficulty paying attention, distractibility, and impulsivity; unknown causes |
| autism spectrum | ___________ __________ disorder includes a range of complex neurodevelopmental disorders, characterized by social impairments, communication difficulties, and restrictive, repeptitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior |
| males, females | _________ are 4x more likely to have ASD than __________ |
| ASD | common signs of _______ (abbv.) - impaired social interaction: avoiding eye contact, difficulty reading body language/social cues, lack of empathy - repetitive movements - inability to play interactively with others |
| neurocognitive | ______________ disorders are a family of disorders are characterized by cognitive decline, normally starting later in life; can be major (interferes severely with daily independence) or mild (less severe) |
| neurocognitive | traumatic brain injury, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's are all examples of _____________ disorders |
| alzheimer's | ___________ is a chronic, progressively debilitating disease that are caused by a buildup of plaques and tangles in the brain, which lead to nerve cell destruction and death --> memory failure, personality changes, and problems carrying out daily tasks |
| amyloid plaques | __________ __________ are clumps of protein fragments that accumulate outside of cells in the brain; lead to Alzheimer's disease |
| neurofibrillary tangles | ____________ ___________ are clumps of altered proteins inside cells in the brain; lead to Alzheimer's disease |
| parkinson's | _____________ is a chronic, progressively debilitating disease that is primarily caused by abnormally low levels of dopamine, which makes it hard to control coordination and movement; Lewy bodies develop |
| Lewy | _________ bodies are abnormal aggregates of proteins that develop inside neurons; associated with Parkinson's |
| sleep-wake | _________-______________ disorders are a family of disorders that are characterized by a disturbance in quality/timing/amount of sleep and specific behaviors while sleeping |
| dyssomnias | ____________ are a class of sleep-wake disorders that are characterized by abnormalities in the amount/quality/timing of sleep (disturbed sleep) |
| insomnia | _______ is a type of dyssomnia that is characterized by the inability to fall/remain asleep |
| narcolepsy | __________ is a type of dyssomnia that is characterized by periodic, overwhelming, sleepiness during waking hours |
| sleep apnea | ________ __________ is a type of dyssomnia that is characterized by intermittent cessation of breathing during sleep that results in repeated awakenings |
| parasomnias | ____________ are a class of sleep-wake disorders that are characterized by abnormal behaviors that occur during sleep (paranormal sleep) |
| somnabulism | _____________ is a type of parasomnia that is characterized by sleep-walking; normally occurs during NREM3 (deep, slow wave sleep) during the first 1/3 of the night; children tend to grow out of it |
| night terrors | __________ __________ are a type of parasomnia that is characterized by fright, babbling, and/or screaming while fast asleep; occurs during NREM3 |
| substance | __________ - related disorders are a family of disorders that are characterized by addictive tendencies and involve the brain's reward system |
| psychoactive | _____________ drugs work by altering the actions at the neuronal synapse --> enhance/suppress/mimic activity of neurotransmitters |
| depressants | this drug class depress the CNS, especially the fight or flight response and cause impaired motor control and organ failure from OD; alcohol, barbiturates, opioids |
| stuimulants | this drug class increases the availability and actions of neurotransmitters and cause sympathetic activation; "rush"/"high" followed by a "crash"; caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine |
| hallicunogens | this drug class distort perceptions and cause hallucinations, impaired judgements, and a slowed reaction time; LSD, marijuana |
| dependence | a person needs to use a drug in order to function normally |
| tolerance | a person must use more of a drug to achieve the same desired effect |
| withdrawal | a group of symptoms that occur when someone who has gained a dependence to a drug suddenly stops or decreases use of the drug; symptoms are drug- and dose-dependent |
| addiction | compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences; inability to stop using the drug |
| gamma | _________ waves occur during intense multitasking |
| beta | _________ waves occur when the body is awake --> similar yet more jagged types of these waves occur during REM |
| alpha | _________ waves occur when the body is drowsy/relaxed |
| theta | __________ waves occur when you are drifting off to sleep/just before you wake up (stage 1 and 2) |
| delta | _________ waves occur during deep sleep (stage 3 and 4) |
| nrem1 | _________ sleep occurs during stage 1 of the sleep cycle |
| nrem2 | _________ sleep occurs during stage 2 of the sleep cycle |
| nrem 3 | _________ sleep occurs during stage 3 and 4 of the sleep cycle |
| 1 | a sleep cycle starts over when it reaches back to stage ___; there are 4 total sleep cycles in 8 hours |
| physical | stage 4 of the sleep cycle is associated with _______ repair |
| mental | stage 2 of the sleep cycle is associated with _______ repair |
| psychological | REM is the stage of the sleep cycle associated with _________ repair |
| rem | you primarily dream during the _______ stage of the sleep cycle |
| nrem1 | characterized by theta waves, slow rolling eye movements, moderate electrical activity of the skeletal muscles, fleeting thoughts when you are nodding off to sleep |
| nrem2 | characterized by sleep spindle and K-complex, no eye movement, moderate electrical activity of the skeletal muscles, increased relaxation, decreased temperature, HR, and respiration |
| nrem3 | characterized by delta waves, no eye movement, moderate electrical activity of the skeletal muscles, heart and digestion slows, growth hormones are secreted; deepest level of sleep |
| rem | characterized by jagged, beta waves, bursts of quick eye movement, almost no electrical activity; when dreams occur |
| limbic | the __________ system of the brain is strongly associated with human emotions, memory (especially LTM), motivation, and behavior; includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala |
| thalamus | this part of the limbic system filters and relays sensory input |
| hypothalamus | this part of the limbic system controls homeostasis; regulated via negative feedback; 2 outputs = ANS and pituitary gland |
| hippocampus | this part of the limbic system primarily creates episodic and semantic memory |
| working | ___________ memory = short-term memory |
| episodic | __________ memory = memories of life events |
| semantic | ___________ memory = academic and textbook information and facts |
| amygdala | this part of the limbic system is involved in fear and other negative emotions; likely adapted because emotional arousal restricts and focuses attention on whatever is causing that emotion |
| partial report | the _________ ___________ technique describes that only some of the total information presented is to be recalled |
| right | muscle control and visual information is contra lateralized, meaning that information from the left visual field is processed in the __________ hemisphere of the brain |
| tract, thalamus, occipital | Visual Sensory Perception Pathway - optic nerves --> optic chiasm --> optic __________ --> _________ --> important information goes to the ___________ lobe --> hippocampus/prefrontal cortex |
| occipital | feature detection neurons in the ____________ lobe decode visual information |
| anterograde amnesia | a damaged hippocampus results in ___________ __________ in which new memories are not able to be made but LTMs before the event remain intact |
| structural | ____________ techniques show was the brain looks like (snapshot) - MRI - CT scans |
| functional | __________ techniques show how the brain changes over time - PET - fMRI (>PET) - EEG |
| neural plasticity | this describes the brain’s ability to adapt and change as a result of experience and new connection can be made/rewired; can occur on a cellular level to an anatomical level |
| long-term potentiation | this describes the persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity in the brain; what fires together, wires together |
| systems consolidation | this describes the process of getting long-term memories from the hippocampus into the neocortex |
| encoding | the transfer of sensations into our memory system |
| storage | the retention of information in short-term/long-term memory |
| retrival | the extraction of information for use that has been stored |
| maintenance rehearsal | a psychological method used to memorize information for the short-term and involves repeating information without absorbing/connecting its meaning |
| primacy | the ___________ effect is a type of serial position effect that states that you are more likely to remember items at the beginning of a list |
| recency | the ___________ effect is a type of serial position effect that states that you are more likely to remember items at the end of a list |
| baddley's | ___________ model of working memory is a multicomponent model that describes the STM system: 4 components are central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer |
| central executive | this part of Baddley's model of working memory is responsible for the coordination of sub-systems, shifting between tasks, selective attention, and inhibition |
| phonological loop | this part of Baddley's model of working memory is responsible for the temporary storage and rehearsal of verbal information; produces semantic verbal memory |
| visuospatial sketchpad | this part of Baddley's model of working memory is responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of visual and spatial information; produces semantic visual memory |
| episodic buffer | this part of Baddley's model of working memory is responsible for information integration and linking to LTM; produces episodic memory |
| increases | as the dissimilarity of tasks ___________; the easiness to multitask increases |
| chunking | grouping related information together into chunks |
| elaboration | intertwining information to be remembered with well-entrenched, pre-existing, long-term spatial, visual, acoustic, or semantic memories |
| self-reference | making information to be remembered personally relevant |
| spacing | involves reviewing and recalling information at optimal spacing intervals |
| iconic | __________ memory = visual memory |
| echoic | __________ memory = acoustic memory |
| iconic, echoic | ___________ memory is more fleeting than _________ memory |
| explicit | _________ memory is the conscious recall of information; includes episodic and semantic memory |
| implicit | _________ memory is the unconscious recall of information; includes procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming |
| spreading activation | theory of how the brain iterates through a network of associated ideas to retrieve specific information |
| priming | occurs when exposure to 1 stimulus influences the response to another stimulus - positive --> speeds up processing - negative --> slows down processing |
| context | ___________- dependent memory is the theory that we are better at retrieving information in the same environmental context in which the information was learned |
| state | __________-dependent memory is the theory that we are better at retrieving information in the same internal state in which the information was learned |
| free | _______ recall is the unordered recall of anything we want to remember |
| serial | _______ recall is the recall of elements in the order in which they were presented |
| cued | ________ recall is prompted recall; fill in the blank type questions |
| flashbulb | _________ memory is the ability to vividly remember in great detail episodic memories of a particularly emotionally arousing event |
| eidetic | ___________ (photographic) memory is the ability to vividly recall images from memory after only a few instances of exposure with high precision |
| reproductive | ___________ memory is the accurate retrieval of information from memory without significant alteration |
| prospective | ____________ memory describes remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention; eg. remembering to do an assignment before class |
| dual-coding | _________-__________ theory states that the combination of words with visuals provides us with 2 different channels for later recall ∴ learning works better when relevant images are shown/imagined in conjunction with information |
| longer | the level of processing model predicts that the deeper the information is process, the ___________ a memory trace will last |
| reminiscence bump | older adults generally remember events they experienced from 10-30 years old better than any other time period, even more recent time periods |
| loci | method of _____ is a method of memory retention in which the individual uses visualized spatial information (such as the street they take on the way home) to recall lists of words to be memorized |
| peg words | a memory technique in which an individual connects works to numbers and creates association to improve retention; item-number pairs often rhyme |
| intrusion error | the substitution of an often semantically meaningful word during free and serial recall of lists; eg. dog instead of doe, wig instead of hair |
| reconstructive | ______________ memory describe the phenomenon that each time memory is retrieved, memory trace is strengthened but also possible altered because the memory systems are subject to error |
| displacement | occurs in STM when one item in the list bumps out another item |
| 7 | most people can only store ___ ± 2 items at a time in STM |
| short | decay, intrusion errors, and displacement are all involved in forgetting __________-term memories |
| long | decay, interference, and retrieval failure are all involved in forgetting __________-term memories |
| proactive | ___________ interference occurs when prior information interferes with new information learning |
| retroactive | ___________ interference occurs when recent information interferes with new information learning |
| improve | these facts _________ with age: - semantic memory (up until ~60 yo) - emotional intelligence (control of emotions) - ability to delay gratification (control of impulsivity) |
| stabilize | these factors _________ with age: - implicit memory - crystallized intelligence |
| decline | these factors _________ with age: - episodic memory - source memory - divided attention (multitasking) - operational span in working memory - processing speed |
| source | __________ memory errors occur due to misidentification of where, when, or how we learned something |
| false memories | these are invented/distorted recollections of an episodic event that didn't actually happen |
| misinformation | _____________ effect occurs when episodic memories become less accurate because post-event information works backwards in time to distort the original memory |
| retrograde amnesia | the loss of access to memories that occur before the traumatic event but retention of the ability to make new memories |
| korsakoff's syndrome | this is a chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency in thiamine (Vitamin B1); most commonly caused by alcohol misuse; results in severe memory problems, confusion, and difficulty learning new thungs |
| non-associative | ____-___________ learning is when an organism changes it magnitude of response due to repeated exposure of a paticular stimulus |
| habituation | when the response to a stimulus diminishes as an organism becomes accustomed to a repeated stimulus |
| dishabituation | when an organism that has been habituated to a stimulus recovers it responsiveness due to removal of stimulus/experiencing a different stimulus |
| sensitization | when an organism demonstrates increased responsiveness to a repeated stimulus; usually occurs with increased arousal |
| classical conditioning | the process in which 2 stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes; strongly associated with behaviorism; Pavlov's dogs |
| generalization | when a stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response |
| discrimination | when a conditioned stimulus is distinguished from other similar stimuli and is the only thing that elicits the conditioned response |
| operant conditioning | aka. associative learning; process in which reinforcement and punishment are employed to mold behavioral responses; Skinner |
| Skinner | he invented operant conditioning chamber; believed psychology should only focus on observable behavior; demonstrated that behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (strengthened) |
| reinforcement | this increases the likelihood of a desired behavior |
| punsihment | this decreases the likelihood of a desired behevaior |
| positive reinforcement | _________ __________ describes when something desirable is added in order to elicit a desired behavior: affection, food, shelter, water, shelter, sleep, money, comfort |
| positive punishment | ___________ ____________ described when something undesirable is added in order to decrease the likelihood of eliciting a desired behavior: pain, discomfort, criticism, injury, chores |
| negative reinforcement | __________ __________ describes when something undesirable is removed in order to elicit a desired behavior: stopping shock/pain, don't have to do chores |
| negative punishment | ___________ ______________ describes when something desirable is removed in order to decrease the likelihood of eliciting a desired behavior: no video games, no social privileges, no allowance |
| dopamine reward pathway | this pathway begins in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) --> reward activates the pathway --> dopamine is released in the nucleus accumbens --> reinforce drug use; other regions implied are the amygdala and the hypothalamus |
| primary | __________ reinforcement is something that is innately desirable and changes the rate of response without previous learning: food, affection, shelter |
| primary | __________ punishment is something that is innately undesirable and changes the rate of response without previous learning: pain, loud noises, extreme temperatures |
| secondary | ___________ reinforcement is something that is conditioned to be desirable: money, gold starks, praise, power, prestige |
| secondary | __________ punishment is something that is conditioned to be undesirable: bad grades, poverty, parking ticket, failure |
| token economy | a system in which behaviors are reinforced with tokens and can be later exchanged for desirable stimuli; very effective in managing some psych disorders, especially children |
| variable ratio | this type of reinforcement schedule describes when reinforcement is provided after an unpredicted number of responses |
| fixed ratio | this type of reinforcement schedule describes when reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of responses |
| variable interval | this type of reinforcement schedule describes when reinforcement is provided after an inconsistent period of time |
| fixed interval | this type of reinforcement schedule describes when reinforcement is provided after set intervals of time |
| variable ratio | type of reinforcement schedule - response rate = fast - extinction = slow (** slowest rate of extinct out of all schedules) |
| fixed ratio | type of reinforcement schedule - response rate = fast - extinction rate = medium - post-reinforcement pause may be analogous to procrastination |
| variable interval | type of reinforcement schedule - response rate = medium-fast - extinction rate = slow - linear slope on # of responses v. time graph |
| fixed interval | type of reinforcement schedule - response rate = medium - extinction rate = medium - long pause in responding following reinforcement, followed nu acceleration |
| acquision | process in the rate of reinforced response increases |
| extinction | decrease in the rate of reinforced response when reinforcement stops |
| extinction burst | increase in response rate that typically occurs when a previously reinforced response is initially no longer paired with any reinforcement --> just before it extinguishes |
| shaping | the differential reinforcement of successive approximations of a target behavior until the person exhibits the target behavior |
| discriminative stimulus | a stimulus that increases responses when present because the subject has learned that this stimulus signals more likely reinforcement |
| mirror | __________ neurons are brain neurons that fire in the same pattern when we observe another perform a known action |
| insight | ______ learning is when a solution to a problem suddenly comes to us in what might be described as a "flash of understanding" |
| latent | ______ learning occurs without immediate expression/obvious reinforcement --> later, when helpful, learning demonstrates itself |
| sensation | the encoding of physical energy from the environment |
| perception | the decoding of sensation (selection, organization, and interpretation) |
| mechano | __________receptors detect mechanical disturbances |
| osmo | __________receptors detect fluid (water) pressure for the ANS |
| pressure | Pacinian corpuscles detect changes in ___________, such as baroreceptors |
| auditory | _________ hair cells detect vibrations caused by sound waves |
| vestibular | __________ hair cells detect acceleration and positive relative to gravity (head rotaion) |
| proprioceptors | these type of receptors that give us body awareness (muscles, joints, tendons) |
| chemo | __________receptors respond to certain chemicals (olfactory and gustatory receptors) |
| nociceptors | these are pain receptors |
| thermo | __________receptors detect a change in temperatures |
| photo | _________receptors are rods and cones in the retina, and are the only electromagnetic receptors in humans |
| rods, chiasm, occipital | __________ and cones in the retina --> optical nerve --> optical ___________ --> optical tract --> thalamus --> visual cortex in the _____________ lobe |
| frontal | this lobe functions in concentration, planning, problem solving, voluntary movement, personality, language production, emotional reactions, speech, and smell |
| parietal | this lobe is responsible for touch and pressures, taste, and body awareness |
| temporal | this lobe is responsible for hearing, face recognition, language comprehension, and long-term memory |
| occipital | this lobe is responsible for visual processing |
| cerebellum | this part of the brain is responsible for coordination of movements, balance, and procedural memory |
| kinesthesis | aka proprioception; allows us to sense the position of our limbs in space as well as detect bodily movements |
| spindle | the muscle ____________ detects muscle stretch |
| golgi tendon | the ______ ________ detects tension in the tendons |
| joint capsule | __________ __________ receptors detect pressure, tension, and movement in the joints |
| left | the ___________ side of the brain is responsible for analytical thought, detail-oriented perception, ordered sequencing, rational thought, verbal, cautious, planning, math/science, logic, R-field vision and motor skills |
| right | the _________ side of the brain is responsible for intuitive thought, holistic perception, random sequencing, emotional thought, non-verbal, adventurous, impulse, creativity, imagination, L field vision and motor skills |
| weber's | ________ law states that 2 stimuli must differ by a constant proportion, which varies by the type of stimulus, but remains constant within a given stimulus; the size of the just noticeable distance is a constant proportion of the original stimulus |
| absolute threshold | this is the minimum amount of a single stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time |
| difference threshold | the minimum distance that must occur between 2 stimuli for them to be perceived as different; aka the just noticeable difference (JND) |
| 8 | the JND for light intensity is ____% |
| hit | in the signal detection theory, if the stimulus is present and the response is present then the conclusion is a _________ |
| miss, II, negative | in the signal detection theory, if the stimulus is present but the response is absent then the conclusion is a _______; aka. a type ____ error; aka. a false ___________ |
| false alarm, I, positive | in the signal detection theory, if the stimulus is absent but the response is present then the conclusion is a ________ _______; aka. a type ____ error; aka. a false ___________ |
| correct rejection | in the signal detection theory, if the stimulus is absent and the response is absent, then the conclusion is a __________ __________ |
| feature detection | the _________ ___________ theory explains that certain parts of the brain are activated for specific visual stimuli; FD neurons only respond to specific features of a visual stimulus |
| parallel | ___________ processing occurs so that many aspects of visual stimuli are processes simultaneously rather than in a step-wise (serial) process; also occurs at level of detail to abstraction --> we can interpret while we still work out the details |
| transduction | this describes when a change in physical energy in the environment taken into neural encoding |
| proximal, distal | a ____________ stimulus is what hits our receptors, whereas a _______ stimulus is a distant object we are sensing |
| bottom-up | ________-___ processing requires conscious effort and is when you start with details and end with a final representation |
| top-down | _______-______ processing is what we do for all but novel stimuli; when you start with an idea about the final representation and work down to the sensory details in our mind |
| gestalt | ___________ psychology studies the predictable ways in which we organize sensory information (parts) into a meaningful pattern (whole) that we perceive; contains 6 laws |
| binocular | __________ depth cues involve the usage of information from both eyes |
| retinal disparity, shorter | this is when the brain compares the images projected into the 2 retinas to perceive distance; the greater the difference the ________ the distance; binocular cue |
| convergence, closer | the extent/angle to which the eyes turn inward when looking at an object; the greater the angle the _________ the object; binocular |
| monocular | ___________ depth cues is the usage of information available to either eye alone |
| relative size | a monocular depth cue that describes that if objects are assumed to be the same size, the one that casts the smaller image in the retina appears more distant |
| interposition | a monocular depth cue that describes that if one object blocks the view of another, we perceive it as closer |
| relative clarity | a monocular depth cue that describes that we perceive hazy objects as being farther away than clear objects |
| texture gradient | a monocular depth cue that describes that texture changes from course and distinct to fine and indistinct the father away the object is |
| relative height | a monocular depth cue that describes that we perceive objects higher in the visual field as farther away |
| linear perspective | a monocular depth cue that describes that parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases |
| light and shadow | a monocular depth cue that describes that closer objects reflect more light than distance objects ∴ dimmer of 2 identical objects will seem farther away |
| relative motion | a monocular depth cue that describes that as we move, stable objects appear to move as well and objects near us appear to move faster than objects that are farther away |
| shape constancy | the concept that familiar objects are perceived as having a constant form despite changes in images that are projected onto the retina |
| size constancy | the concept that we perceive objects as having constant size even as distances increase |
| lightness constancy | the concept that we perceive objects having constant lightness despite changes in illumination |
| similarity | the gestalt law of ___________ states that similar things tend to appear grouped together |
| pregnanz | the gestalt law of ___________ states that when given a set of ambiguous objects, the brain tries to make them as similar as possible |
| proximity | the gestalt law of ___________ states that things that re closer together seem more related than things spaced far apart |
| closure | the gestalt law of ___________ states that we perceive objects as belonging to the same group if they seem to complete some entity |
| continuity | the gestalt law of ___________ states that elements in a line/curve seem more related to each other than those positioned randomly |
| common region | the gestalt law of ___________ ___________ states that when elements are located in the same region, they are perceived as belonging to the same group |
| broadbent | ___________ filter model of selective attention is a theory that intends to explain why we are not constantly overwhelmed by all the stimuli in our environment |
| cocktail party | ________ _______ effect describes that we filter out conversations until our name (or something similar) is mentioned, at which point we then shift our attention |
| decay | Treisman altered Broadbent's model to account for the cocktail party effect --> unattended information doesn't _________; rather it is turned down to a lower volume and still processed consciously |
| multitasking | aka. divided attention; success at doing this depends on task similarity, task difficulty, and task practice |
| increases | as dissimilarity between tasks _________, the easiness to multitask increases |
| assimilation | this occurs when we interpret new information based on our current schemas |
| accomodation | this occurs when we incorporate new information and experiences into our schemas |
| sensorimotor | _______________ stage - Piaget's first stage of development (0-1.5/2 yrs) - child experiences the world directly through senses and motor movement - Milestones: stranger anxiety and object permanence |
| preoperational | __________ stage - Piaget's second stage of development (2-6/7 yrs) - child can represent things with words and images, but uses intuitive (not logical) thinking - Milestones: symbolic thinking, centration, egocentrism |
| concrete operational | __________ __________ stage - Piaget's third stage of development (7-11 yrs) - child thinks logically and performs simple mental manipulations with concrete concepts - Milestones: conservation |
| formal operational | _______ ___________ stage - Piaget's fourth and last stage of development (12+ yrs) - person can now reason abstractly, solve hypothetical problems, and deduce consequences - Milestones: abstract logic, moral reasoning |
| insight | when we puzzle over a problem and then the complete solution comes to us all at once (like a flashbulb) |
| heuristic | this is a mental rule to thumb/shortcut/guideline that help us make quick and efficient decisions, especially when we have limited time, information, or resources |
| algorithm | this is a step-by-step procedure that exhausts all possible outcomes to help us arrive at a solution |
| conformation bias | this describes how we seek evidence to support our conclusions/ideas more than we seek evidence that will refute them; interpret neutral evidence as supporting our beliefs |
| fixation | this occurs when we've structured a problem in our mind a certain way, even uf that way is ineffective, and are unable to restructure it --> unable to see a problem in a new perspective |
| mental set | this is our tendency to approach situations in a certain way; framework for thinking about something |
| functional fixedness | _______ ________ is the mental bias that limits our view on how an object can be used, based on our it is traditionally used |
| availability | ____________ heuristic relies on examples that immediately come to mind --> usually results in us overestimating the probability and likelihood of something happening |
| representative | _____________ heuristic is one we use when we estimate the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype that already exists in our minds |
| hindsight | _______________ bias occurs when after something unpredictable happens, we think "I knew that would happen" |
| social | ____________ intelligence is the ability to manage and understand people |
| emotional | ____________ intelligence is the ability to monitor and discriminate emotions to guide thinking and action |
| fluid | ____________ intelligence is the ability to think speedily and reason flexibly to solve new problems without relying on past experience and accumulated knowledge |
| crystallized | ____________ intelligence is the accumulated knowledge and verbal skills we have gained |
| 4-6 | between ___-____ months, infants are babbling using all sounds |
| 6-9 | between __-___ months, infant babbling becomes more focused and their sound narrows |
| 10-12 | between ___-___ months, infants say their first word |
| 18-24 | between ___-____ months, a naming explosion occurs and babies starts to use two-word phrases ("get milk") |
| 2-3 | between ___-___ years, toddlers begin using 3-word phrases in correct order with inflection; common language errors occurs including overextension and underextension |
| 4-5 | between ____-____ years, kids start speaking with very accurate syntax |
| 5-7 | between ____-____ years, kids begin using and understanding complex language |
| 9 | at ___+ years, kids understand all forms of language |
| bootstrapping | this is the process in which kids become sensitive to grammatical syntax (eg. nouns v. verbs) before they understand vocabulary |
| BF Skinner | _________'s behaviorist theory of language states that language develops through associative learning principles of classical, and more importantly, operant conditioning |
| Chomsky | ____________'s nativist theory of language states that infants are born with the innate ability to use lang.; humans are innately capable of understanding universal grammar common to all langs; we learn lang. when exposed to it during a critical period |
| Vygotsky | _____________'s interactionist theory of language admits that there are some innate, biological language learning ability, but emphasizes social interactions and cognitive development as the most important factors |
| Broca's area | located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere; associated with language production; damage to this area results in non-fluent aphasia with intact comprehension |
| Wernicke's area | located in the posterior superior temporal gyrus; associated with understanding written and spoken language; damage to this area results in fluent aphasia with impaired comprehension |
| linguistic determinism | this states that language determines thoughts and emotions; linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories; a part of the linguistic relativity hypothesis |
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