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Physiology Ch.
Reproduction
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Embryo | Developing human from 8 weeks past gestation |
| Gestational age | Age of embryo past last normal menstrual cycle |
| Cleavage | Mitotic cell division. Cleavage of the zygote forms the blastomeres (completely undifferentiated stem cells) |
| Morula | when cleavage forms 12-32 blastomeres |
| Fetus | Developing human past 8 weeks |
| Autosomes | Body chromosomes, 22 pairs of matching homologous chromosomes |
| Gametes | Sex cells, haploid. Produced by primary reproductive organs |
| Homologous chromosomes | Pair of matching chromosomes (one from each parent) |
| Puberty changes in females | Breast enlargement, wider hips, fat storage. Gametes mature and axillary and pubic hair grows |
| Puberty changes in males | Chest/facial hair growth, increase in muscle and bone, deeper voice, changes in face shape. Gametes mature and axillary and pubic hair grows |
| _____ of hypothalamus stimulates ____ and ____ of anterior pituitary to begin puberty. | GnRH, FSH, LH |
| FSH causes | Sperm/eggs to mature |
| LH causes | Testosterone and estrogen to be generated |
| Gametogenesis | Process of forming human sex cells, beginning with meiosis |
| Meiosis has ____ cell divisions. | 2 |
| Oocyte | Egg. One is released monthly |
| Sperm | Male gamete, LOTS produced daily |
| Mitosis | Makes 2 clones of diploid cell with full DNA |
| Meiosis | Diploid cell in gonads produces 4 haploid. Crossing over and independent assortment mixes genetic material during it. |
| Meiosis II is when | Sister chromatids separate |
| During meiosis I, chromatids line up ____ at the middle plate. | Randomly |
| Mitosis of germ (gamete) cells in ovaries produces | Primary oocytes |
| Bivalents | When homologs come together and line up (tetrads) |
| The conclusion of meiosis I causes the formation of | 4 Secondary oocytes or 4 secondary spermatocytes |
| Why does meiosis form haploid cells? | Because there is no DNA replication after meiosis I, so the second division splits the DNA |
| Meiosis II division produces 4 _____ in males and does not occur until _____ of secondary oocyte in females. | Spermatids, fertilization |
| Second meiotic division in females produces | 1 ovum and 3 polar bodies |
| SRY gene | Sex-determining region of Y chromosome that triggers formation of testes |
| Females can't ovulate without | LH surge |
| The ends of uterine tubes are ____ directly attached to ovaries. | Not |
| Ovarian artery | Directly branches off aorta |
| Process of follicles in females | Primordial follicle -> primary follicle -> secondary follicle -> antral follicle -> mature follicle -> oocyte is expelled -> sac left becomes corpus luteum -> corpus albicans if no implantation |
| Uterine tubes | Extend from uterus to ovaries. Has cilia to sweep oocyte into uterus |
| Myometrium | Thick tunic of uterus with 3 layers of sm |
| Wolffian ducts | Ducts that are retained in males. When testosterone is made, causes these ducts to differentiate into epididymis, vans deferens, ejaculatory duct, and seminal vesicles |
| _____ secrete testosterone and _____ | Testes, MIS |
| MIS | Secreted by testes, disintegrates the mullerian duct system) |
| DHT (dihydrotestosterone) | Hormone that generates penis and scrotum |
| Mullerian ducts | Persist in females (because they have no testes to secrete MIS). Develops into uterine tubes and uterus. |
| Androgens | Steroid hormones that have masculinizing actions |
| Estrogens | Steroid hormones secreted by ovaries and placenta |
| Estradiol | Predominating estrogen produced by ovaries. In blood plasma |
| Estrone | Produced by ovaries |
| Estriol | Found primarily in pregnant women produced by placenta |
| Primary reproductive organ in males | Testes (2) |
| Accessary reproductive organ in males | Penis, ducts from testes, accessory glands |
| Scrotum | Provides cooler environment for sperm. Homologs to labia majora in females |
| Raphe | Ridgelike seam at midline of scrotum |
| Dartos muscle | Layer of smooth muscle under fascia and skin. Relax at higher temp to move testes away to cool and contract in lower temp to bring them to body |
| Spermatic cord | Blood vessels and nerves going from abdomen to testis, origination in inguinal canal |
| Inguinal canal | Tubelike passageway through abdominal wall |
| Layers of wall of spermatic cord | External spermatic fascia, cremaster muscle and cremaster fascia, internal spermatic fascia (3 layers total) |
| Testes | Housed inside scrotum, produce sperm and androgens. Covered by serous membrane with outer parietal and inner visceral layers with fluid in between |
| Tunica vaginalis | Serous membrane covering testes |
| Tunica albuginea (testes) | Thick fibrous capsule covering testes under tunica vaginalis |
| Mediastinum testes | Thickening of tunica albuginea projecting into interior testes where blood vessels, ducts, and nerves enter/leave |
| Speta | Internal projections of tunica albuginea of testes that divides internal space into 250 lobules |
| Seminiferous tubules | In testes, very convoluted and long. Contains dividing germ cells which are continuously producing sperm |
| Sertoli cells (sustentacular cells) | Nondeveloping SUPPORT cells extending from basement membrane of lumen of seminiferous tubules that nourish developing sperm and release inhibin when sperm count is high (when FSH is present). |
| Blood-testis barrier | Sertoli cell barrier. Ring of interconnected sertoli cells that protects sperm from material in blood and maintains luminal fluid of seminiferous tubules; formed from tight junctions between Sertoli cells |
| Interstitial spaces | Spaces surrounding seminiferous tubules |
| Interstitial cells | In interstitial spaces around seminiferous tubules. Produce androgens when stimulated by LH |
| Efferent ductules | Connect rete testes to epididymis. Ciliated columnar epith to propel sperm to epididymis and non ciliated column to absorb excess fluid from seminiferous tubules |
| Rete testis | Mesh of interconnected channels in mediastinum testis. Receive sperm from seminiferous tubules lined in simple cuboidal epith with microvilli. Merge to form efferent ductules |
| Epididymis | Head of superior testis surface and body and tail of posterior. STORES SPERM until they are mature and mobile |
| Ductus deferens (vans deferens) | Large tube lined with sm that sperm enters after leaving epididymis. Within spermatic cord and travels to form ampulla that unites with proximal seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct |
| Ampulla in males | Formed from ductus deferens that unites with proximal terminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct |
| Ejaculatory duct | Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epith. Conducts sperm and component of seminal fluid towards urethra |
| Urethra | Transports semen from ejaculatory ducts to outside of body |
| Prostatic urethra | Extends from bladder through prostate gland |
| Membranous urethra | Continues through urogenital diaphragm (between prostatic and spongy urethra) |
| Spongy urethra | Extends through penis from membranous urethra |
| Seminal fluid | Alkaline secretion needed to neutralize vaginal acidity. Gives nutrients to sperm traveling in F reproductive system. Produced by: seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands |
| Seminal vesicles | Secretes alkaline fluid with fructose and prostaglandins. Walls are pseudostratified columnar. Located on posterior urinary bladder lateral to ampulla of ductus deferens |
| Fructose produced by seminal vesicles... | Nourish sperm |
| Prostaglandins from seminal vesicles | Promotes widening of external os of cervix for easier entrance for sperm |
| Prostate gland | Surrounds upper part of urethra. Tubuloalveolar and submucosal glands produce seminal fluid. Also secretes milk fluid rich in citric acid, seminal plasmin, and prostate specific antigen (PSA) |
| Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) | Liquifies semen following ejaculation, produced by prostate gland |
| Bulbourethral glands | Paired glands in urogenital diaphragm below prostate with ducts that enter spongy urethra. Tuboalveolar glands produce mucin to lubricate urethra |
| Semen | Fluid produced by seminal vesicles and prostate gland and sperm. Called ejaculate when released during intercourse. |
| Ejaculate | Semen released during intercourse |
| Primary spermatocytes | Cells that are produced by mitosis (spermatogenesis) that then undergo meiosis I |
| Spermatogenesis | 1) Primary spermatocyte increases in size, undergoes meiosis I to form 2 secondary spermatocytes 2) Each 2nd spermat undergoes meiosis II to form 4 spermatids (haploid) 3) Spermatids differentiate into spermatozoa (sperm) |
| Spermiogenesis | Spermatid to spermatozoa (sperm) differentiation. Sheds excess cytoplasm, nucleus elongates, acrosome cap forms over nucleus and tail forms from microtubules, attaching to midpiece region |
| Acrosome cap | Forms over nucleus of sperm, contains digestive enzymes to penetrate secondary oocyte |
| Leydig cells | Stimulated by LH to produce testosterone. Inside interstitial space between sertoli cells (M reproductive system) |
| Seminiferous tubules -> | Production of sperm |
| Leydig cells -> | Production of testosterone |
| Pathway of sperm during ejaculation | SEVEN UP Seminiferous tubules Epididymis Vans deferens Ejaculatory ducts Nothing Urethra Penis |
| Penis | Forms external genetalia with scrotum |
| Root (penis) | Internally attached portion of penis. Forms bulb and crus |
| Bulb | Part of root that attaches penis to bulbospongiosus muscle |
| Crus | Part of root that attaches penis to pubic arch |
| Body (penis) | Elongates, moveable portion of penis |
| Glans (penis) | Tip of penis containing external urethral orifice |
| Prepuce | Circular fold of skin attached to raised edge of glands of penis |
| Erectile bodies of penis | 3. Tunica albuginea, PAIRED corpus cavernosa, and corpus spongiosum |
| Tunica albuginea (penis) | Sheathes erectile bodies of penis |
| Corpus cavernosa | 2, dorsolateral, terminates in shaft of penis. Erectile body of penis |
| Corpus spongiosum | Erectile body of penis that contains spongy urethra and continues within glans |
| Erection | When aroused, blood vessels in penis dilate to increase blood flow; vascular compartments become filled with blood |
| Male sexual response phases | 1) Excitement 2) Orgasm 3) Resolution 4) Refractory period |
| Point (erection) is from ____ innervation. | Parasympathetic |
| Shoot (ejaculation) is from _____ innervation. | Sympathetic |
| Excitement phase | Erectile bodies of penis contain venous spaces that fill with blood; erection occurs. Parasym causes local release of NO to increase blood flow |
| Orgasm phase | Accessory glands secrete seminal fluid components, internal urethral sphincter of bladder is contracted and ejaculation occurs at end of this phase |
| Resolution phase | Sympathetic nervous system contracts central artery of penis to decrease blood flow. Intense relaxation |
| Refractory period | Where no erection is possible |
| Spermatogonia | Primordial germ cells from which sperm develop. Diploid cells near base of seminiferous tubule and when divided by mitosis makes primary spermatocyte and new spermatogonium. |
| Hormonal regulation of testes and spermatogenesis | 1) Hypothal with GnRH 2) LH for testosterone via interstitial cells and FSH to sertoli cells for ABP to make testosterone levels high in testes 3) Inc testosterone has negative feedback effect 4) Inhibin from sertoli 5) Testost stim libido & puberty |
| FSH in females | Triggers egg development |
| LH in females | Triggers ovulation and development of corpus luteum |
| Vesicouterine pouch | Space between urinary bladder and uterus |
| Rectouterine pouch | Space between rectum and uterus |
| Primary reproductive organ in females | Ovaries (2) |
| Accessory reproductive organ in females | 2 uterine females, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, mammary glands, |
| The end of the uterine tubes are ______ to the ovaries, but are ____. | Not connected, open to the abdominal cavity close to them. |
| Parasym (Vagus nerve) interacts with ______. | Ovarian arteries |
| Germinal epithelial | Simple cuboidal epithelial layer surrounding ovary |
| Tunica albuginea in ovary | Dense ct under germinal epithelium |
| Outer cortex in ovaries | Under tunica albuginea, contains ovarian FOLLICLES and highly cellular ct |
| Medulla of ovary | Inner. Alveolar ct under cortex. Contains branches of ovarian blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves |
| Ovarian follicles | Oocyte surrounded by follicle cells. 6 main types through development |
| Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes) | Extend laterally from both sides of uterus. Is ciliated, transports ovulated oocyte to uterus |
| Mesosalpinx | Superior part of broad ligament that covers and suspends uterine tubes |
| Infundibulum | Free, tunnel shaped lateral margin of uterine tube with fingerlike fimbriae. Enclose ovary only during ovulation |
| Fimbriae | Numerous fingerlike folds of infundibulum |
| Mucose of uterine tubes | Simple ciliated columnar epith. Cilia sweep oocyte into tube towards uterus |
| Uterus | Anteverted, but can be retroverted in older women. Lies between urinary bladder and rectum. Implantation site for fertilized egg, supports, protects, and nourishes developing embryo |
| Uterine arteries | Give blood to uterus, branching off internal iliac arteries |
| _____ of uterus contracts during childbirth. | Myometrium |
| _______ of uterus is shed if oocyte is not fertilized | Endometrium |
| Regions of uterus | Fundus, body, isthmus, cervix |
| Fundus | Domed region between attachments of uterine tubes. Superiormost |
| Body | Middle region of uterus with thick wall of sm |
| Isthmus | Narrow, constricted inferior region superior to cervix |
| Cervis | Inferiormost part of uterus that projects into vagina. Bounded by internal and external os |
| Cervical canal | Narrow channel within cervix connecting to vagina inferiorly |
| Internal os | Superior opening of cervical canal |
| External os | Inferior opening of cervix into vagina covered by nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium |
| Mucus plug at _____ prevents _____ from entering uterus from vagina. It ____ around ovulation. | External os, pathogens, thins |
| Tunics of uterine wall | Perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium, |
| Perimetrium | Outer tunic of uterus continuous with broad ligament |
| Myometrium | Thick middle tunic of uterus with 3 layers of sm |
| Endometrium | Innermost mucosal tunic of uterus with two layers: basal and functional. |
| Basal layer | Part of endometrium adjacent to myometrium. Permanent layer, is not shed. |
| Functional layer | Part of endometrium that begins to form at puberty, growing from basal layer under influence of estrogen and progesterone. Is shed during menses. |
| _____ is affected by estrogen and progesterone. | Endometrium |
| Endometrium ____ in response to estrogen | Thickens |
| Endometrium ______ in response to progesterone | Becomes glandular |
| When levels of both progesterone and estrogen drop in uterus, spiral arteries _______ and functional zone ______. | Contract, disintegrates |
| _______ of endometrium survives cycle to cycle. | Basal layer |
| Vagina | Thick walled fibromuscular tube. Birth canal, passageway for menstruation, received penis. Supported by vaginal arteries. |
| Vaginal arteries branch off of ______. | Internal iliac arteries |
| Tunics of vaginal wall | Mucosa, muscularis, adventitia |
| Mucosa of vagina | Inner tunic of nonkeratinized STRATIFIED squamous epithelium. Acidic secretions to precent infection |
| Muscularis of vagina | Middle tunic |
| Adventitia of vagina | Outer tunic |
| Hymen | Formed by mucosa of vagina. Vascularized membranous barrier |
| Vaginal orifice | Vaginal opening |
| Mammary gland | Composed of tubulo-ALVEOLAR exocrine gland to produce breast milk |
| Nipple | Transport breast milk |
| Areola | Pigmented ring around nipple with uneven surface due to sebaceous (areolar) glands |
| Suspensory ligaments | Fibrous connective bands supporting breast |
| Mammary glands subdivide into ____ | Lobes -> lobules -> alveoli |
| Alveoli of mammary glands | Produce milk and get more numerous when pregnant |
| Lactiferous ducts | Large channels of merged ducts that drain a single lobe of mammary gland |
| Lactiferous sinus | Formed by lacteriferous ducts. Where milk is stored |
| Prolactin | Maintains secretory alveoli and mature duct system of mammary glands |
| Ovarian cycle | Primary oocyte in cortex of ovary -> primary follicle -> secondary follicle -> antral follicle |
| Ovarian functions | Produces gametes in fetal period, maturation of oocytes, expulsion of mature oocyte in ovulation, secretion of F sex hormones |
| Female sex hormones | Estrogen, progestrone, inhibin |
| OOgenesis | Primary oocyte to secondary oocyte. In stages |
| OOgonia | Primordial germ cells in ovary. Diploid, divide with mitosis and start meiosis I to become primary oocytes |
| Primary oocytes | In ovary, Are arrested in meiosis I in prophase. They complete meiosis I just before it is ovulated during puberty to become secondary |
| Secondary oocytes | Made from primary when it completes meiosis I and is ovulated. If it is fertilized in uterine tubes, meiosis II occurs AFTER ovulation. |
| Fertilization occurs _____ ovulation. | After |
| Primordial follicles | Primary oocyte surrounded by single layer of flat epith cells |
| Primary follicle | Primary oocyte with single layer of CUBOIDAL granulosa cells. Secretes estrogen as matures to stimulate changes in uterine linine. |
| Granulosa cells | Secretes F sex hormones, layer of cells that surrounds zona pellicula |
| Zona pellucida | Translucent structure of glycoproteins that surrounds primary oocyte |
| Secondary follicle | Primary oocyte with many layers of granulosa cells with thecal cells on periphery |
| Thecal cells | On periphery of secondary follicle that helps control follicle development by secreting androgens to be converted to estrogen by granulosa cells |
| Antral follicle | At day 10-14. Primary oocyte with many layers of granulosa and antrum. Oocyte is full size, granulosa cells secrete fluid to fill antrum, and thecal cells proliferate. |
| Antrum | Fluid-filled space of granulosa secretions forming as ovulation nears. Forces oocyte to one side |
| Cumulus oophorus | Cluster of follicle cells surrounding oocyte in antral follicle |
| Corona radiata | External to zona pellucida and innermost layer of cumulus oophorous in antral follicle |
| Full size of primary oocyte | 115 microns |
| Mature follicle | Secondary oocyte, zona pellucida, corona radiata, many layers of granulosa, antrum. Arrested in meiosis II metaphase. One formed per month |
| What happens at ovulation with the follicle? | Enzymes and prostaglandins from granulosa cells break down follicular-ovarian membranes so oocyte and surrounding granulosa can be expelled from follicle and carried onto surface at ovary. |
| Corpus luteum | Remaining granulosa cells and thecal cells left in ovary after ovum is expelled. Secretes progesterone and estrogen as well as inhibin to prep uterus for possible implentation |
| Corpus albicans | Formed from corpus luteum. Ct scar after fertilization does not occur, and progesterone and estrogen levels drop. Fibroblasts absorb it. |
| Before puberty, FSH concentration is ____ to induce development of eggs and menstrual cycle. | Too low |
| Dominant follicle | The SINGLE larger antral follicle that continues to develop, chosen by AMOUND OF ESTROGEN produced locally within it. |
| Atresia | Programmed cell death (apoptosis) that occurs to nondominant follicles in both ovaries |
| All but ____ follicles undergo atrestia. | 400 |
| Ovulation phases | Follicular phase, ovulation phase, and luteal phase |
| Follicular phase | Phase in ovulation where mature follicle and secondary oocyte develop because of LH and FSH |
| Luteal phase | Phase in ovulation that begins after ovulation and lasts until involution of corpus luteum |
| Estrogen | Synthesized/released into blood during follicular phase mainly by granulosa cells. After ovulation is released by corpus luteum |
| Progesterone | Corpus luteum is major producer |
| Inhibin | Secreted to make sure excess follicles aren't matured. Secreted by granulosa and corpus luteum |
| Ovarian cycle has ____ phases. | 3; follicular, ovulation, luteal |
| Ovarian luteal phase is during uterine ____ phase | Secreatory |
| Ovarian follicular phase during uterine ______ phase. | Menstrual and proliferative |
| There is a LH peak ______. | Just before ovulation |
| FH _____ at end of ovarian cycle stimulates ____ follicles to enlarge. Is due to _____ progesterone, estrogen, and inhibin from _____. | Increases, antral. Decreased, dying corpus luteum. |
| Menopause | Women cease cycling for 1 year |
| _____ is primary event that induces ovulation. | LH surge |
| _____ acts on granulosa cells to _____, produce _____, and form _____. | FSH, multiply, estrogen, antrum |
| _____ acts on theca cells to ______ and synthesize _____. | LH, proliferate, androgens |
| Conceptus | When secondary oocyte is fertilized and implanted in uterus. |
| Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) | Secreted once secondary oocyte is implanted. Mimics LH and stimulates corpus luteum to continue to produce estrogen and progesterone until 3 months pass. |
| After 3 months, the ____ takes over the jobs from the corpus luteum | Placenta |
| Uterine cycle | Changes in endometrial lining. Menstrual phase -> proliferative phase -> secretory (luteal) phase -> ischemic phase |
| Menstrual phase | Functional layer of uterus is sloughed off, leaving thin endometrium. Occurs when progesterone levels drop |
| Proliferative phase | A new functional layer is developed. Controlled by estrogen and coincides with follicular growth. Increases number of uterine glands and spiral arteries elongate. Cervical mucus also thins for sperm penetration |
| Secretory phase | Increase in progesterone from corpus luteum. Endometrium thickens, uterine glands become wider. |
| Ischemic phase | Phase of endometrium if no fertilization occurs, just before menstrual phase |
| Soon after ovulation, because of _______, endometrium begins to secrete ____ in ______ epithelium, along with _____ and _______. | Progesterone and estrogen, glycogen, glandular epithelium, glycoproteins, mucopolysaccharides, |
| Decrease in progesterone causes | Constriction of spiral arteries and cessation of glandular secretion -> rupture of ischemic vessel walls and brook breaks through endometrial surface -> menstruation |
| Progesterone ____ myometrial contractions so that ____. | Inhibits, egg can safely implant |
| Fertilization | Two gametes fuse to form diploid. Occurs in ampulla of uterine tube |
| Zygote | Newly fertilized egg, zona pellucida becomes hard to prevent more sperm from getting in. |
| Phases of fertilization | Penetration of corona radiata, penetration of zona pellucida by acrosome, fusion of oocyte and sperm cell membranes |
| _____ sperm are required for ____ to get through _____ and ____. | Multiple, one, zona pellucida, corona radiata |
| Capacitation | Occurs in F reproductive tract. Acrosome wears away to reveal enzymes -> physiological conditioning of sperm to become capable of fertilization. |
| Sperm-oocyte binding causes _____ of _____. | Influx, Ca2+ |
| Head of sperm contains | Chromsomes |
| Middle part of sperm | Has mitochondria for ATP generation |
| ____ of energy in sperm. Nutrients come from _____. | No source, semen. |
| After fertilization, oocyte _____. | Finishes meiosis II |
| Sperm must go through _____ to fertilize egg. | Capacitation |
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