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Chapter 5
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| learning as a process that produces a | relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of an individual’s experience. |
| As the result of experience, you acquire | new behaviors or modify old behaviors so as to better cope with your surroundings. |
| Conditioning is the process of | learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. |
| three basic types of learning | classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. |
| classical conditioning explains how | certain stimuli can trigger a reflexive, automatic response |
| operant conditioning is useful in understanding how we | acquire new, voluntary actions, |
| observational learning, or how we | acquire new behaviors by observing the actions of others. |
| Classical conditioning is a process of learning | associations between stimuli |
| One of the major contributors to the study of learning | Russian physiologist who was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work on digestion Ivan Pavlov’s |
| a reflexive response | a largely involuntary, automatic response to an external stimulus. |
| Classical conditioning is formally defined as the | basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response. |
| Classical conditioning deals with behaviors that are | elicited automatically by some stimulus. |
| Elicit means | draw out” or “bring forth.” |
| reflexive response is a | relatively simple, unlearned behavior, governed by the nervous system, that occurs automatically when the appropriate stimulus is presented. |
| Classical conditioning involves pairing a | neutral stimulus (e.g., the sight of Pavlov) with an unlearned, natural stimulus (food in the mouth) that automatically elicits a reflexive response (the dog salivates). |
| If the two stimuli (Pavlov + food) are repeatedly paired, | eventually the neutral stimulus (Pavlov) elicits the same basic reflexive response as the natural stimulus (food) — even in the absence of the natural stimulus |
| The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning is called the | unconditioned stimulus (or UCS |
| The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus is called the | unconditioned response (or UCR). |
| conditioned stimulus (or CS) is a formerly | neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response. |
| conditioned response (or CR), which is the | learned, reflexive response to a previously neutral stimulus |
| the “conditioned stimulus” refers to the | “learned stimulus,” |
| “unconditioned response” refers to the | “unlearned response,” and so forth. |
| Pavlov (1928) discovered many factors that could affect the | strength of the conditioned response |
| he discovered that the more frequently the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus were paired | the stronger the association between the two. |
| Pavlov also discovered that the | timing of stimulus presentations affected the strength of the conditioned response. |
| He found that conditioning was most effective when the | conditioned stimulus was presented immediately before the unconditioned stimulus. |
| Pavlov (1927) noticed that once a dog was conditioned to salivate in response to a particular stimulus, | new stimuli that were similar to the original conditioned stimulus could also elicit the conditioned salivary response. |
| Stimulus generalization is the | occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but to other, similar stimuli as well. |
| stimulus discrimination, is the | occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli. |
| Pavlov (1927) also found that a conditioned stimulus could itself function as an | unconditioned stimulus. |
| Higher order conditioning, or second order conditioning, is a procedure in which a | conditioned stimulus from one learning trial functions as the unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning trial. |
| Pavlov (1927) found that conditioned responses could be | gradually weakened. |
| f the conditioned stimulus (the ticking metronome) was repeatedly presented without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (the food), | the conditioned response seemed to gradually disappear. |
| extinction, which is formally defined as the | gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior |
| spontaneous recovery, is the | reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus |
| extinction is not | unlearning. |
| learned response may seem to | disappear, but it is not eliminated or erased |
| Behaviorism was founded by | John Watson, who redefined psychology as the scientific study of behavior. |
| Pavlov believed he had discovered the mechanism by which all learning occurs, but he did not apply his findings to human behavior. That task was to be taken up by psychologist | John Watson. |
| Watson (1913) strongly advocated that psychology should be redefined as the scientific study of behavior, which, unlike mental processes, | could be objectively observed. |
| Watson founded a new school, or approach, in psychology, called | behaviorism |
| behaviorism is the school of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the | study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning |
| Watson believed that virtually all human behavior is a result of | conditioning and learning |
| placebo response is an | individual’s psychological and physiological response to what is actually a fake treatment or drug. |
| Contemporary learning researchers acknowledge the importance of both | cognitive factors and evolutionary influences in classical conditioning. |
| According to Rescorla (1988), classical conditioning depends on the information the conditioned stimulus provides about the | unconditioned stimulus. |
| For learning to occur, the conditioned stimulus must be a reliable signal that | predicts the presentations of the unconditioned stimulus |
| According to this view, animals use cognitive processes to | draw inferences about the signals they encounter in their environments |
| Rescorla’s research suggests that “the animal behaves like a | scientist, detecting causal relations among events and using a range of information about those events to make the relevant inferences” |
| classical conditioning seems to involve learning the | relationships between events |
| Taste aversion is formally defined as a | classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food. |
| sychologist John Garcia, who demonstrated that taste aversions could be | produced in laboratory rats under controlled conditions |
| biological preparedness | the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses |
| Operant conditioning deals with the learning of | active, voluntary behaviors that are shaped and maintained by their consequences. |
| Classical conditioning can help explain the | acquisition of many learned behaviors, including emotional and physiological responses. |
| classical conditioning involves reflexive behaviors that are | automatically elicited by a specific stimulus. |
| operant conditioning, another form of conditioning that explains how we | acquire and maintain voluntary behaviors. |
| Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) was the first psychologist to systematically investigate | animal learning and how voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences. |
| law of effect, a | learning principle in which responses followed by satisfying effects are strengthened (more likely to occur again), but responses followed by dissatisfying effects are weakened (less likely to occur again). |
| Thorndike’s description of the law of effect was an important first step in understanding how | active, voluntary behaviors can be modified by their consequences |
| From the time he was a graduate student in psychology until his death, the famous American psychologist B. F. Skinner searched for the | “lawful processes” that would explain “order in behavior” |
| Like John Watson, Skinner was a | behaviorist. |
| To Skinner, the most important form of learning was demonstrated by | new behaviors that were actively emitted by the organism, such as the active behaviors produced by Thorndike’s cats in trying to escape the puzzle boxes. |
| Skinner (1953) coined the term operant to describe any | “active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences.” |
| Skinner’s operant conditioning is the | basic learning process that involves changing the probability that a response will be repeated by manipulating the consequences of that response. |
| One possible consequence of a behavior is | reinforcement. |
| Reinforcement is the occurrence of a | stimulus or an event following a response that increases the likelihood of that response being repeated. |
| Notice that reinforcement is defined by the effect it produces | increasing or strengthening the occurrence of a behavior in the future. |
| operant | the active response you emitted. |
| reinforcing stimulus, or reinforcer | the stimulus or event that is sought in a particular situation. |
| reinforcing stimulus is typically something | desirable, satisfying, or pleasant. |
| The discriminative stimulus is a | specific stimulus that increases the likelihood of a particular response because it indicates that reinforcement is likely to occur. |
| discriminative stimuli can also signal that | certain operant behaviors are unlikely to be reinforced. |
| There are two forms of reinforcement: | positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. |
| Positive is the equivalent of a | plus sign (+), meaning that something is added. |
| Negative is the equivalent of a | minus sign (−), meaning that something is subtracted or removed. |
| Positive reinforcement is a situation in which a | response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations. |
| f the addition of the reinforcing stimulus has the effect of making you more likely to repeat the operant in similar situations in the future | then positive reinforcement has occurred. |
| Negative reinforcement occurs when a | behavior leads to the avoidance of an aversive, or undesired stimulus. |
| Avoiding the unwanted stimulus reinforces the behavior, | which will then typically be repeated. |
| Negative reinforcement is a situation in which a response | results in the removal of, avoidance of, or escape from an aversive, or undesired, stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations. |
| extinction, a phenomenon that occurs when a | learned response no longer results in reinforcement, and the likelihood of the behavior’s being repeated gradually declines. |
| This phenomenon is called the partial reinforcement effect, | the phenomenon in which behaviors that are conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement. |
| In ratio schedules | reinforcement is delivered after a certain number of responses, |
| In interval schedules | reinforcement is delivered after a certain interval, or amount of time, has elapsed. |
| reinforcement schedules are fixed, | meaning predictable and consistent. |
| In variable schedules, | reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses or average time interval, which varies from trial to trial. |
| Variable-ratio schedules of reinforcement produce | high, steady rates of responding that are very resistant to extinction |
| Variable-interval schedules tend to | produce moderate but steady rates of responding. |
| In observational learning, we learn through | watching and imitating the behaviors of others. |
| First, you must pay attention to the | other person’s behavior. |
| Second, you must remember the other person’s | behavior so that you can perform it at a later time |
| Third, you must transform this mental representation into | actions that you are capable of reproducing. |
| attention, memory, and motor skills — are necessary for | learning to take place through observation. |
| Fourth, there must be some | motivation for you to imitate the behavior. |
| You are more likely to imitate a behavior if there is some expectation that doing so will | will produce reinforcement or reward |
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