2 types of ATP synthesis from glucose

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Anatomy lect exam 3

Nutrition, blood, cardiovascular system

Question	Answer
total of all chemical reactions that occur in the body	metabolism
energy-releasing processes that break larger molecules down to smaller molecules	catabolism
energy-requiring processes that join small molecules together to form larger molecules	anabolism
energy in carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins is used to produce _____	ATP
2 types of ATP synthesis from glucose	Anaerobic respiration and aerobic respiration
2 step of anaerobic respiration	Glycolysis, lactic acid fermentation
3 steps of aerobic respiration	Glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, electron transport system
Glycolysis involves producing _______ from 1 glucose molecule	2 ATP, 2CO2, 2NADH
Kreb's cycle involves producing ________ from 2 pyruvates (from glycolysis)	2 ATP, 4CO2, 8NADH, 2FADH
Electron Transport chain involves producing _________ from 10NADH, 2FADH, and 6O2	32-34 ATP, 6H2O
Fatty acids undergo _______ and enter the cycle known as ________	Beta-oxidation, acetyl-CoA
Breakdown of fats produces ________	Ketone bodies
Ketone bodies may build up causing:	Ketoacidosis
If used for energy, amino acids must first undergo _______	deamination
deamination is the removal of _____ group	NH2
deamination produces ______ that must be converted to urea for excretion	ammonia
excretion occurs via ______ but excess amounts are a problem for individuals with renal disease	kidneys
amino acids are not stored in body, so excess are converted to _____	fat
Results from a deficiency in an enzyme involved in catabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine	Phenylketonuria
A high level of ________ interferes with normal development of nervous system and severe mental retardation may result	Phenylalanine
Process in which excess glucose is converted to glycogen	glycogenesis
Process in which glucose and amino acids are converted to lipids when glycogen stores are full	Lipogenesis
Breakdown of glycogen to glucose	Glycogenolysis
formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules	Gluconeogenesis
2 metabolic states	absorptive state and postabsorptive state
Period immediately after eating when nutrients are absorbed and enter the circulatory and lymphatic systems (~4 hrs after meal)	Absorptive state
Occurs after absorptive state when blood glucose levels must be maintained by conversion of other molecules to glucose	Postabsorptive state
Total amount of energy produced and used by the body per minute	Metabolic rate
Metabolic rate correlates with amount of _____ used	O2
energy used at rest	basal metabolic rate
basal metabolic rate makes up ~ ___% of metabolic rate	60
energy used to digest and absorb food	thermic effect of food
thermic effect of food makes up ~ __ % of metabolic rate	10
energy used for muscle contraction	muscular activity
muscular activity makes up ~ ___ % of metabolic rate	30
chemicals used by body to produce energy, to provide building blocks, or to function in other chemical reactions	Nutrients
two classes of nutrients	macronutrients and micronutrients
Required in large amounts	Macronutrients
Required in small amounts	Micronutrients
Examples of macronutrients (4)	Carbs, proteins, lipids, and water)
Examples of micronutrients (2)	Vitamins and minerals
Any nutrient that must be ingested and cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts	Essential nutrient
Some essential nutrients are: (6)	water, some amino acids, some fatty acids, most vitamins and minerals, a few carbohydrates
measure of energy supplied by food and released through cellular metabolism	Kilocalories (Calories)
RDA for carbohydrates	45-65% of total daily intake
most carbohydrates come from	plants
3 classes of carbohydrates	Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
______ and _______ are converted to glucose, kept as glycogen, or converted to fats	disaccharides, polysaccharides
RDA of lipids	30% or less of daily intake
two classes of lipids	triglycerides (fats) and cholesterol
Lipids used for energy or stored in adipose tissue	triglycerides
two types of triglycerides (fats)	saturated fats and unsaturated fats
Examples of saturated fats	Meats, whole milk
Examples of unsaturated fats	Vegetable oils
Found in liver and egg yolks, but will be made from triglycerides	Cholesterol
Essential fatty acids found in seeds, nuts, legumes, grains, and green leaves	Linoleic acids
RDA of proteins	10-35% of daily intake
All proteins are broken into ______ which are classified as essential or nonessential	Amino acids
Proteins that contain all of the necessary amino acids	Complete proteins
Examples of complete proteins	All meats, milk, cheese, and eggs
Organic nutrients required in small amounts to make enzymes function and maintain growth and normal metabolism	Vitamins
Some vitamins are _____ and some can be made	essential
two classes of vitamins	fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins
Vitamins stored in fat tissue	Fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamins in which excess is excreted	Water-soluble vitamins
Examples of fat-soluble vitamins	A, D, E, K
Examples of water-soluble vitamins	B, C, etc.
Prevent formation of free radicals in the body	Antioxidants
Inorganic elements necessary for normal metabolism	Minerals
Minerals are obtained from	Plant and animal sources
Some minerals attached to _____ are difficult to absorb	Plant fibers
Functions of minerals in body (5)	Nerve conduction, osmotic balance, bone/teeth structure, buffering systems, hemoglobin structure
The cardiovascular system consists of	Heart, blood vessels, blood
Pumps blood through blood vessels	Heart
System of tubes that distribute blood throughout body	Blood vessels
Liquid that carries oxygen, nutrients, wastes, etc. to all body clles	Blood
7 functions of blood	Transport of gases, nutrients, waste products, transport of processed molecules, transport of regulatory molecules, maintenance of body temp, regulation of pH, protection against foreign substances, clot formation
Regulatory molecules transported in blood	Hormones and enzymes
In blood, buffers maintain ____, ions and protein maintain __________	pH, osmotic pressure
______ and ________ in blood protect against foreign substances	White blood cells, antibodies
Blood makes up ~ __ % of total body weight	8
Blood volume in females	4-5L
Blood volume in males	5-6 L
Liquid extracellular matrix of blood	Plasma
plasma is 91% _____ and 9% _____	water, solutes
3 proteins in blood plasma	albumins, globulins, fibrinogen
maintain viscosity and osmotic pressure, buffers, transport fatty acids, bilirubin, and thyroid hormones	albumins
transport lipids, carbohydrates, hormones, ions, antibodies, and complement proteins	globulins
involved in clotting	fibrinogen
nutrients in blood plasma	glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, triacylglycerol, vitamins, and water
waste products created from the breakdown of protein (4)	urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia salts
waste product created from breakdown of RBC's	bilirubin
waste product that is a byproduct of anaerobic respiration	lactic acid
Ions in blood plasma (10)	Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Cl2-, PO4 2-, H+, OH-, HCO3-
gases in blood plasma	oxygen, carbon dioxide, inert nitrogen
Includes cells and cell fragments found suspended in plasma	Formed elements
Small cellular fragments in blood	Platelets
Disease of the liver which results when healthy liver tissue is replaced by scar tissue	Cirrhosis
Causes of cirrhosis	Cancer, alcoholism, viral hepatitis
Cirrhosis results in progressive decrease in production of _______ which results in fluid loss to extracellular spaces producing severe edema in the abdomen	Plasma proteins
Cirrhosis also causes a decrease in _________ levels which leads to easy bruising and delayed clotting which may be fatal	Clotting factor
Typical erythrocyte is a ________ disc	Biconcave
Mature erythrocyte cells are ________ to create room in the cytosol for enzymes and hemoglobin proteins	anucleate
Iron in each heme group is oxidized when hemoglobin binds to oxygen and forms:	Oxyhemoglobin
When O2 levels are low, hemoglobin binds to CO2 forming:	Carbaminohemoglobin
Process of blood cell production that takes place in red bone marrow	Hematopoiesis
Hematopoiesis is produced by __________	Hematopoietic stem cells
5 types of hematopoietic stem cells	Proerythroblasts, myeloblasts, lymphoblasts, monoblasts, megakaryblasts
Hematopoietic stem cell that become RBC's	Proerythroblasts
Hematopoietic stem cell that become neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils	Myeloblasts
Hematopoietic stem cell that becomes lymphocytes	Lymphoblasts
Hematopoietic stem cell that becomes monocytes	Monoblasts
Hematopoietic stem cell that becomes platelets	Megakaryblasts
Produces erythrocytes in about 5-7 days to replace cells	Erythropoiesis
RBC's live about ___ days	120
Progenitor cells become _________ when erythropoietin (EPO) from kidneys is present	proerythroblasts
Erythroblasts synthesize ________	Hb (hemoglobin)
________ in the bloodstream eject the nucleus	Reticulocytes
During erythrocyte death, hemoglobin is broken down into:	Globin chains and heme
Erythrocyte death: iron is released from the heme, which is converted to ______ then ________	biliverdin, bilirubin
Iron is transported to liver or bone marrow by protein called:	transferrin
Common condition defined as a decrease in the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood	Anemia
What kind of anemia results from vitamin B12 deficiency?	Pernicious anemia
What kind of anemia results from infections or poisoning that destroys erythrocytes?	Hemolytic anemia
What kind of anemia results from radiation inhibiting erythrocyte production?	Aplastic anemia
5 types of anemia	Iron deficiency anemia, pernicious anemia, hemolytic anemia, aplastic anemia, sickle cell anemia
Leukocytes use ______ for transportation	Bloodstream
Chemicals released by injured cells to attract leukocytes	Chemotaxis
Two types of leukocytes	Granulocytes and agranulocytes
Process by which leukocytes adhere to walls of blood vessels and squeeze between endothelial cells to enter surrounding tissue	Diapedesis
3 types of granulocytes	Neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils
Most common leukocyte, actively phagocytizes bacterial cells	Neutrophils
Respond to infections with parasitic worms and allergic reactions	Eosinophils
Least common leukocyte, secretes heparin and mediates inflammation	Basophils
Two types of agranulocytes	Lymphocytes and monocytes
2nd most common leukocyte, makes antibodies and destroys virally infected cells or cancer cells	Lymphocytes
Mature into macrophages and ingest dead/dying cells, bacteria, antigens, and other debris	Monocytes
Cell fragments surrounded by a plasma membrane, involved in clotting	Platelets
The complete arrest of bleeding	Hemostasis
3 parts of hemostasis	Vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation
Part 1 of hemostasis, begins immediately when a blood vessel is injured and blood leaks into extracellular fluid	Vascular spasm (vasoconstriction)
Part 2 of hemostasis, has three steps (platelet adhesion, platelet activation, platelet aggregation)	Platelet plug formation
Platelets become "sticky" from von Willebrand factors and adhere to each other	platelet adhesion
Platelets release ATP, ADP, serotonin, calcium, thromboxanes, etc. that activate other platelets	Platelet activation
activated platelets bind fibrinogen which forms a "platelet plug"	Platelet aggregation
Part 3 of hemostasis, involves clotting factors in plasma that remain inactive until tissues are injured	Coagulation
3 steps of coagulation	Activation of prothrombinase, conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin
What happens during clot retraction?	Actin and myosin fibers in platelets contract which bring the edges of wounded vessel closer together
Removal of the clot, which involves breaking down the fibrin glue	Thrombolysis
3 steps of fibrinolysis	Activation of plasminogen by tPA from endothelial cells, conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, plasmin degrades to fibrin and clot dissolves
2 anticoagulants	heparin, warfarin
Anticoagulant that acts rapidly but must be injected	Heparin
Anticoagulant that can be given by mouth but takes days to become effective	Warfarin
Drug that inhibits platelet aggregation	aspirin
____ is used to restore blood flow rapidly to prevent tissue damage when thrombi or emboli have caused stroke or heart attack	tPA
transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another	Transfusion
Blood grouping is determined by ______ on the surface of RBC's	antigens
Agglutinins in blood	Antibodies
Main blood groups:	ABO and Rh
Only A antigen is present, anti-B antibodies	Type A blood
Only B antigen is present, anti-A antibodies	Type B blood
Both A and B antigens are present, no antibodies	Type AB blood
Neither A nor B antigens, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies	Type O blood
Functions of heart (5)	Generate blood pressure, route the blood, ensure one-way blood flow, regulate blood supply, produce hormones
The heart produces a hormone called:	Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Situated to the left side in the thoracic cavity in the mediastinum and on the diaphragm	Heart
The heart is approximately the size of a fist and weighs:	250-350 g
2 layers of pericardium	fibrous pericardium, serous pericardium
Outer collagen layer of pericardium	Fibrous pericardium
Inner membrane of pericardium that produces serous fluid	Serous pericardium
Encases heart like a sac	parietal pericardium
Innermost layer of pericardium aka epicardium	Visceral pericardium
3 layers of heart wall	epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
Outer surface of heart wall with connective tissue and epithelium	Epicardium
Cardiac muscle tissue layer of heart wall	Myocardium
Inner surface of epithelium that lines the chambers and continues into blood vessels	Endocardium
Right side of heart pumps blood to lungs through pulmonary arteries	Pulmonary circuit
Left side of heart pumps blood to rest of body through aorta	Systemic circuit
circulation that supplies the heart muscle	coronary circulation
deliver blood to heart muscle (branch from aorta)	coronary arteries
drain blood from heart muscle	coronary veins
systems of channels formed between blood vessels	anastomoses
results from buildup of fatty materials/plaques in coronary arteries	coronary artery disease (CAD)
occurs when plaques rupture and a clot obstructs blood flow to myocardium	Myocardial infarction/heart attack
Branched cells with large nucleus and striations made of actin and myosin myofilaments	Cardiac muscle cells
cytoplasm has a very high concentration of:	mitochondria and myoglobin
Permit communication between cardiac muscle cells	gap junctions
hold cardiac muscle cells together	desmosomes
heart does not require stimulation from nervous system to generate action potentials	autorhythmicity
cardiac electrical activity is coordinated by a small, unique population of cardiac muscle cells called:	pacemaker cells
conducted from cell to cell, not along a single fiber as in skeletal muscle	action potentials
Slower in cardiac muscle than skeletal muscle because of gap junctions	Action potential propagation
calcium moves into cell and stimulates release of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum	calcium-induced calcium release (CICR)
3 types of gated ion channels in cardiac muscle	voltage gated sodium ion channels, potassium ion channels, calcium ion channels
open in response to voltage changes but not found in certain pacemaker cells	voltage-gated sodium ion channels
some are voltage gated and some are ligand gated	potassium ion channels
Not found in skeletal muscle, demonstrate voltage-gated opening but time-gated closing	calcium ion channels
4 phases of electrophysiology	rapid depolarization phase, initial repolarization phase, plateau phase, repolarization phase
voltage-gated Na+ channels are activated and Na+ enters	Rapid depolarization phase
Na+ channels are inactivated and some K+ channels open	Initial repolarization phase
Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+ enters as K+ exits (causes refractory period)	Plateau phase
Na+ and Ca2+ channels close as K+ continues to exit	Repolarization phase
pacemaker that generates action potentials and passes them to AV node	sinoatrial (SA) node
passes action potentials to ventricles	AV node
passes AP's to the interventricular septum	AV bundle
Passes AP's to the ends of the R and L ventricles	R and L bundle branches
Pass AP's to ventricles	Purkinje fibers
record of electrical events in the myocardium that can be correlated with mechanical events	electrocardiogram
depolarization of atrial myocardium that signals the onset of atrial contraction	P wave
ventricular depolarization that signals the onset of ventricular contraction (repolarization of atria occurs simultaneously)	QRS complex
repolarization of ventricles that signals ventricular relaxation	T wave
Results from fluid vibrations and closure of AV valves at the beginning of ventricular systole	Heart sound 1 or "lub"
Results from closure of semilunar valves at the beginning of ventricular diastole	Heart sound 2 or "dub"
sequence of events that take place in the heart from one heartbeat to the next	cardiac cycle
the cardiac cycle includes:	contraction periods and relaxation periods
Measured as the systolic blood pressure	contraction periods
measured as the diastolic blood pressure	relaxation periods
4 phases of cardiac cycle	ventricular filling phase, isovolumetric contraction, ventricular ejection phase, isovolumetric relaxation

Created by: mbopp0

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