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ANT 253
Final Exam Vocab
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Tawantinsuyu | The name for the Inca Empire, derived from the Quechua language, meaning "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." It referred to the four regions that made up the empire: Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu, and Kuntisuyu. |
| Quipu | A system of knotted strings used by the Inca civilization for record-keeping, primarily for accounting and communication. The knots and colors of the strings represented numerical data, and sometimes narrative information. |
| Cuzco | The capital city of the Inca Empire, located in the Andean highlands of present-day Peru. It was considered the "navel of the world" in Inca mythology and was the political, military, and cultural center of the empire. |
| Mesoamerica | A region in the Americas that includes parts of modern-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. It was home to a number of advanced pre-Columbian civilizations, such as the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, and Aztec. |
| Olmec | An ancient civilization that flourished in Mesoamerica from around 1400 to 400 BCE. The Olmecs are considered one of the first major civilizations in Mesoamerica and are known for their colossal stone heads, which may represent rulers or deities. |
| Codex | A manuscript book made of paper, bark, or other materials, often written by hand. In Mesoamerica, codices were used to record historical events, religious texts, and calendrical information. EX: Dresden Codex and Madrid Codex from the Maya civilization. |
| The Ball Game | A ceremonial sport played by various Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya and the Aztec. The game involved a rubber ball and could symbolize themes of life, death, and cosmic balance. It was often played in large stone ball courts. |
| Quechua | A language spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Andean region, including parts of modern-day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Colombia. It was the language of the Inca Empire and is still widely spoken today. |
| Nahuatl | A Uto-Aztecan language spoken by the Nahua people, primarily in central Mexico. It was the language of the Aztecs and is still spoken by around 1.5 million people today. |
| Teosinte | A wild grass native to Mesoamerica that is considered the ancestor of modern maize (corn). Genetic evidence suggests that early Mesoamerican societies domesticated teosinte into the maize we know today. |
| Cenote | A natural sinkhole or well, typically formed by the collapse of limestone bedrock, exposing groundwater beneath. Cenotes were important water sources for ancient Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Maya, and were often considered sacred. |
| Teotihuacan | Ancient Mesoamerican city in central Mexico, flourished from about 100 BCE to 750 CE. Known for monumental architecture, including the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacan was one of the largest cities in the pre-Columbian Americas. |
| Tenochtitlan | The capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco, in present-day Mexico City. It was a large, sophisticated city, with causeways, canals, and impressive temples. It was destroyed by Spanish conquistadors in 1521. |
| Chinampa | A type of artificial farming island used by the Aztecs and other Mesoamerican civilizations. Chinampas were built in shallow lakes by creating small, rectangular plots of land using mud and vegetation, which provided highly productive agricultural areas. |
| Sedentism | The practice of living in one place permanently, as opposed to a nomadic lifestyle. Sedentism is often associated with the development of agriculture, as settled communities require consistent access to food sources and resources. |
| Younger Dryas | A brief period of rapid cooling that occurred about 12,900 to 11,700 years ago, interrupting the gradual warming at the end of the last Ice Age. It is often linked to climatic shifts that influenced the development of early human societies. |
| Neolithic | Period of prehistory that began around 10,000 BCE and is characterized by the development of agriculture, domestication of animals, and transition from nomadic lifestyles to settled farming communities. It marked the end of the Paleolithic (Stone Age). |
| Ain Mallaha | An important prehistoric archaeological site in modern-day Israel, dating back to around 11,000 BCE. It is one of the earliest known examples of sedentary human settlement, where people lived in permanent structures and began cultivating plants. |
| Abu Hureya | A key archaeological site in Syria, which is one of the oldest known villages with evidence of the transition from foraging to farming. The site dates to around 13,000 BCE and has provided insights into early agricultural practices. |
| Göbekli Tepe | Prehistoric archaeological site in southeastern Turkey, dating back to around 9600 BCE. Considered one of the oldest known religious sites, featuring massive stone pillars arranged in circles, with carvings of animals. Purpose remains subject of debate. |
| Domestication | The process by which humans selectively breed wild plants and animals for desirable traits, such as increased yield or docility. This process played a crucial role in the development of agriculture and settled societies. |
| Chalcolithic | The period of prehistory, also called the Copper Age, between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, typically occurring around 4500 to 3500 BCE. It is characterized by the use of copper tools, alongside continuing use of stone tools. |
| Ubaid | An archaeological culture that existed in southern Mesopotamia around 6500 to 3800 BCE. It is known for its early advancements in pottery, architecture, and social organization, and is considered a precursor to the Sumerian civilization. |
| Hassuna | A prehistoric culture in northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) that existed around 6000 to 5300 BCE. The Hassuna culture is known for its distinctive pottery, agricultural practices, and early village settlements. |
| Samarra | Archaeological culture and site in ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) that flourished between 6200 and 5700 BCE. Known for its distinctive pottery and development of early agricultural settlements, and role in the development of irrigation techniques. |
| Halaf | A prehistoric culture that existed in northern Mesopotamia and parts of Syria (approximately 6000–5100 BCE). The Halaf culture is known for its distinctive painted pottery, early settlements, and the development of complex social and economic practices. |
| Cuneiform | One of earliest systems of writing, developed by Sumerians around 3500 BCE ancient Mesopotamia. Originally a system of pictographs, but evolved into a complex script of wedge-shaped marks (clay tablets), for laws, trade, and administrative activities. |
| Akkadian language | Ancient Semitic language spoken in Mesopotamia, related to Hebrew and Arabic. Replaced Sumerian as the dominant spoken language in the region and was used throughout the Akkadian Empire (circa 2334–2154 BCE). It was written in cuneiform script. |
| Sumerian language | Language spoken by people of Sumer, earliest known civilization in Mesopotamia (circa 3100 BCE and earlier). Language isolate, no known relation to any language. Used for religious, literary, and administrative texts, eventually replaced by Akkadian. |
| Cylinder seal | Small, cylindrical object, made of stone, carved with intricate designs. When rolled across clay, seal leaves an impression, used to mark ownership or to authenticate documents in ancient Mesopotamia, particularly during the Sumerian and Akkadian periods. |
| Ziggurat | Massive stepped pyramid-like structure found in ancient Mesopotamia, serves as a temple complex dedicated to a god or goddess. Ziggurats built with mud bricks and wide platform at the top, sometimes with a small temple. Most famous: The Ziggurat of Ur. |
| Uruk | Ancient city in Mesopotamia (Iraq), dating back to 4000 BCE. Considered one of world’s first major cities and center of culture, trade, political power. Famous for development of writing and creation of first known literary work, the Epic of Gilgamesh. |
| Upper Egypt | Southern portion of ancient Egypt, located upstream along the Nile River. Characterized by its mountainous terrain and fertile floodplains. Its capital was Thebes, and it played a central role in the early history of the pharaonic state. |
| Lower Egypt | Northern part of ancient Egypt, near the Nile Delta. Known for its rich agricultural land and delta’s network of waterways. Capital was Memphis, considered the more politically and economically powerful region during various periods of Egyptian history |
| Narmer palatte | Ceremonial tablet, dating to 3100 BCE, commemorates unification of Upper & Lower Egypt under rule of King Narmer (aka Menes). Earliest examples of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, depicts victory over his enemies and assumption of power over both regions. |
| Naqada period | Egyptian prehistory (c. 4000–3100 BCE) three stages: Naqada I, II, and III. Known for development of culture, beginnings of social stratification, advances in pottery, and formation of centralized political system, eventually led to Early Dynastic Period. |
| Djoser Step Pyramid | Monumental stone structure built for Pharaoh Djoser, who ruled during the Third Dynasty (c. 2670 BCE). Located at Saqqara, Considered earliest large-scale stone building in Egypt and first pyramid. Precursor to later, more refined pyramids, like at Giza. |
| Rosetta Stone | Famous stone tablet inscribed with same text in three scripts: Greek, Demotic, and Egyptian. Discovered in 1799, key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs, thanks to the known Greek translation, allowed scholars to understand the hieroglyphic script. |
| Kush | Ancient kingdom to the south of Egypt (Sudan) existed from around 1070 BCE to 350 CE. The Kingdom of Kush was known for its powerful rulers, rich culture, and its eventual conquest of Egypt, where the Kushite dynasty (the 25th Dynasty) ruled as pharaohs. |
| Meroe | Capital of Kingdom of Kush from 800 BCE to 350 CE. Located on the banks of the Nile in modern-day Sudan, known for its impressive pyramids, advanced ironworking technology, and its role as a center of trade and culture in northeastern Africa. |
| El Kurru | An archaeological site in Sudan, near the Nile River, that was used as a royal burial site by the Kingdom of Kush. The site contains several Kushite royal tombs, including that of King Piye, and is famous for its early examples of Kushite pyramids. |
| Jenné-Jeno | Ancient city in present-day Mali, West Africa, flourished from 250 BCE to 900 CE. Considered one of earliest urban centers in sub-Saharan Africa and was an important trading hub, with evidence of long-distance trade and advanced ironworking technology. |
| Great Zimbabwe | Medieval city in southern Africa, capital of Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourishing between the 11th and 15th centuries CE. Famous for massive stone ruins, Great Enclosure & Hill Complex, role as center of trade, politics, and culture in southeastern Africa. |
| Bantu Migrations | Large-scale migration across sub-Saharan Africa, beginning 1000 BCE and continuing several centuries. Spread agriculture, ironworking, and languages across southern, central, and eastern Africa, shaping the continent’s ethnic & linguistic landscape. |
| Mehrgarh | Neolithic site in present-day Pakistan, dating from 7000 BCE. Earliest known centers of agriculture in the Indus Valley region and provides evidence of early domestication of animals, pottery, and trade. Precursor to later Indus Valley Civilization. |
| Mohenjo-Daro | Ancient city of Indus Valley Civilization, in present-day Pakistan. Flourished 2500 BCE and one of the largest cities of its time, known for its advanced urban planning, including grid streets, sophisticated drainage systems, and large public buildings. |
| Harappa | Major city of Indus Valley Civilization, in present-day Pakistan. Well-planned city with advanced architecture, drainage systems, and evidence of extensive trade networks. It flourished 2500 BCE before civilization began to decline around 1900 BCE. |
| Indus Script | System of symbols used in Indus Valley Civilization, found on seals, pottery, and tablets. Script has yet to be fully deciphered, and its meaning remains unclear, though it is believed to have been used for administrative and possibly religious purposes. |
| Intercultural Style | Term used in art and archaeology to describe style or motif that blends elements from multiple cultural or artistic traditions. |
| Secondary Burial | A mortuary practice where the deceased is first buried, and after some time, their bones are exhumed, cleaned, and reburied in a more permanent or ceremonially significant place. |
| Peiligang Culture | Neolithic culture in ancient China, dating from 7000 to 5000 BCE. Early agricultural practices, pottery, and semi-sedentary villages. Earliest known cultures in the Central Plain of China, important for role in development of Chinese civilization. |
| Jiahu | Site in Henan Province, China, dating from 7000 BCE, associated with the Jiahu culture. Famous for early use of rice agriculture, production of pottery, earliest known musical instruments, bone flutes. Earliest centers of Neolithic culture in China. |
| Oracle Bones | Animal bones / turtle shells used in ancient China, during the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE), to practice divination. Inscriptions made on bones, heated until they cracked. Cracks interpreted as omens, inscriptions earliest known forms of Chinese writing. |
| Erlitou | Bronze Age site in China, capital of the early Xia Dynasty (1900–1500 BCE). Important for advanced metallurgy, urban planning, and evidence of state-level governance. It marks the transition from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age in China. |
| Shang | Chinese dynasty, ruled from 1600 BCE to 1046 BCE, recognized for bronze technology, early forms of writing (inscribed on oracle bones), and development of a centralized state. Considered second historically verified dynasty in China (Xia is first). |
| Tomb of Shihuangdi | Burial site of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, near Xi'an in China. Famous for the Terracotta Army. The tomb itself remains largely unexcavated but is believed to contain vast riches and complex features. |
| Terracotta Army | A collection of thousands of life-sized statues of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were buried with the emperor to protect him in the afterlife |
| Franchthi Cave | Prehistoric site in Greece, known for long-term occupation, from the Upper Paleolithic to early Neolithic. Evidence of transition from hunting and gathering to early agriculture and is key site in understanding the prehistory of the Aegean region. |
| Star Carr | Mesolithic site in northern England, dating to 10,000 BCE. Evidence of early human settlement, including tools, animal remains, and a wooden platform, as well as early signs of ritualistic practices such as the burial of animal skulls. |
| Linearbandkeramik (LBK) | Neolithic culture in Central Europe, dating from 5500 to 4500 BCE. Known for distinctive pottery with linear decorations and early adoption of agriculture, particularly the cultivation of wheat and barley. One of the earliest farming cultures in Europe. |
| Varna Cemetery | Prehistoric burial site in Bulgaria, dating to 4500 BCE. Site famous for large number of rich graves containing elaborate grave goods, including gold jewelry, which provides insight into early European social stratification and development of metallurgy. |
| Ötzi | Natural mummy of a man from Copper Age, discovered in the Alps on the border between Austria and Italy in 1991. Lived around 3300 BCE, provides info about early human life, including tools, clothing, diet, and health conditions, most important finds. |
| Stonehenge | Monument located southern England, built between 3000 BCE and 2000 BCE. Circular arrangement of large standing stones and believed to have had religious, ceremonial, or astronomical significance. Most iconic and mysterious prehistoric sites in the world. |
| Avebury | Neolithic stone circle and site in Wiltshire, England, dating to around 2600 BCE. One of largest stone circles in Europe & includes a henge, several smaller circles, and surrounding earthworks, indicating it was used for ceremonial or religious purposes. |
| Minoan | Aegean civilization on island of Crete from 3000 BCE to 1450 BCE. Known for their advanced art, architecture (especially the palace complexes at Knossos), and their maritime trade. They developed writing system called Linear A, which remains undeciphered. |
| Mycenaean | Civilization of ancient Greece during late Bronze Age (1600–1100 BCE). Known for palatial centers (such as Mycenae and Tiryns), development of Linear B writing (earliest form of Greek), and influence on later Greek culture, including the Trojan War myths. |
| Linear A | Script used by Minoan civilization (1800–1450 BCE). Has not been deciphered, and its purpose is still debated, but it is believed to have been used for administrative and religious purposes. It predates Linear B, which was used by the Mycenaeans. |
| Linear B | Syllabic script used by the Mycenaeans (1450–1100 BCE) for writing an early form of Greek. Deciphered in the 1950s by Michael Ventris and is one of earliest known examples of Greek language. It was used primarily for administrative and economic purposes. |
| Bull-leapers | Motif in Minoan art, particularly in frescoes, figures are depicted grasping the horns of a bull and leaping over its back. May have religious / symbolic significance, is considered an important part of Minoan culture, possibly tied to fertility rites. |
| Tholos | Circular, domed building or tomb, found in Aegean and Mediterranean regions. Tombs are especially associated with Mycenaean Greece, where they were used as royal burial sites. The most famous: "beehive" tombs, such as the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae. |
| Mycenae | Important city-state in ancient Greece during late Bronze Age (1600–1100 BCE). Center of Mycenaean civilization, known for monumental architecture (Lion Gate and its palace complex) and its role in Greek mythology, especially in the story of Agamemnon. |
| The Sea Peoples | Group of maritime raiders who attacked ancient Egypt, the Levant, and other regions around the eastern Mediterranean during late Bronze Age (1200 BCE). Thought to contribute to collapse of several ancient civilizations, exact origins & identity unclear. |
| Homo floresiensis | Small hominin,"hobbit," lived on the island of Flores in Indonesia 100,000 to 50,000 ya. Small size (about 1 meter tall) and primitive features. Discovery challenged previous ideas about human evolution, suggesting small-brained hominins may survived. |
| Lapita Culture | Pacific culture flourished between 1600 and 500 BCE, in islands of Pacific. Distinctive pottery, considered ancestors of modern Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. Associated with early spread of Austronesian-speaking peoples across the Pacific. |
| The Long Pause | Period of cultural stagnation in Americas, between 1300 and 1000 BCE, pre-Columbian cultures (Mesoamerica & Andean) experienced collapse. Environmental or climatic shifts and transition from Archaic period to structured and complex societies. |
| Moai | Large, statues on Easter Island (Rapa Nui), created by Rapa Nui people between 13th & 16th centuries. Made of volcanic tuff, represent ancestors & placed on stone platforms "Ahu." The purpose: related to ancestor worship &projection of political power. |
| Monte Verde | Site in southern Chile, dating 14,500 BCE. Eearliest evidence for human habitation in Americas, remains of structures, tools, and plant material, challenging traditional theory: humans arrived in the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge around 13,000 BCE. |
| Chinchorro Mummy | Mummified remains associated with the Chinchorro culture of the coastal desert region of northern Chile and southern Peru. People, lived around 5000 BCE, are known for unique mummification practices, earliest people to intentionally mummify their dead. |
| Chavín de Huántar | Site in the northern Andes of Peru, associated with the Chavín culture (900–200 BCE). Temple complex, including intricate stone carvings, galleries, and the famous Lanzón Stela. Likely religious center, influencing later Andean cultures, pilgrimage site. |
| Moche | Ancient civilization on northern coast of Peru between 100 & 800 CE. Known for elaborate pottery, intricate metalwork, and construction of large adobe pyramids (Huaca del Sol). Highly developed culture, complex religious rituals human sacrifice. |
| Lord of Sipán | Title given to a powerful Moche ruler whose tomb was discovered in 1987 in Sipán, Peru. Tomb contained wealth of artifacts (gold jewelry,ceremonial items,human sacrifices) significant insights into Moche culture and their elaborate burial practices. |
| Tiwanaku | Andean civilization, flourished between 500 CE and 1000 CE in highlands present-day Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca. Advanced stone architecture (semi-subterranean temple), agricultural innovations (raised fields) led to intensive farming harsh environments. |
| Angel Mounds | Native American site in southern Indiana, USA, 1000 CE to 1450 CE. Large settlement of the Mississippian culture, extensive network of earthen mounds for ceremonial & residential purposes. Best-preserved Mississippian sites in the United States. |
| Mississippian | Native American culture in the southeastern and midwestern United States from 800 to 1600 CE. Known for its large earthen mounds (at Cahokia), its complex social hierarchy, and its agricultural practices, which centered on maize, beans, and squash. |
| Woodlands | Cultural area in eastern N. America, associated with pre-Columbian societies lived in the forested regions from 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Marked by development of pottery, mound-building, and early agricultural practices, leading to Mississippian & cultures. |
| Paleoindian | Earliest human cultures in Americas, dating from 15,000 to 8000 BCE. Primarily hunter-gatherers, and tools include distinctive stone points such as Clovis points. They are believed to have migrated into the Americas from Asia via the Bering Land Bridge. |
| Inca | Dominated western South America from 15th century until the Spanish 16th century. Capital: Cuzco (Peru),largest pre-Columbian empire in Americas, advanced engineering, agriculture, and road systems, creation of monumental architecture (Macchu Pichu) |
| Tikal | Major ancient Maya city in present-day Guatemala. 300 BCE and 900 CE, became one of largest & most powerful Maya city-states. Known for impressive pyramids, including Temple IV, and its role in the political and religious life of the Maya civilization. |
| Clovis | Culture in North America, 13,000 BCE, known for distinctive stone tools "Clovis point" (projectile point used for hunting). Widely believed to have been some of first inhabitants of Americas, likely migrating from Siberia across the Bering Land Bridge. |
| Beringia | The land and maritime region that once connected Asia and North America, including Bering Land Bridge, emerged during periods of low sea levels. Beringia was likely the migration route for the first humans into the Americas, starting around 15,000 BCE. |
| Poverty Point | Site in northeastern Louisiana, USA, dating to 1700 BCE. Major Native American ceremonial and trade center, with large earthworks and concentric rings of ridges. It represents one of the earliest known complex societies in North America. |
| Cohokia | Largest pre-Columbian Native American city in North America, near present-day St. Louis, Missouri. Flourished between 1050 and 1350 CE, center of the Mississippian culture and known for extensive earthen mounds (Monks Mound). |
| Pueblo Bonito | Large cliff dwelling in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, built by Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi) between 850 and 1150 CE. One of the most well-known and preserved examples of Chacoan architecture, with multi-story stone buildings and complex ceremonial spaces. |
| Chaco Canyon | Center of Ancestral Puebloan culture in northwestern New Mexico. Inhabited between 850 and 1150 CE, center for commerce, politics, & religion. Large, complex structures (Pueblo Bonito) for ceremonial & astronomical purposes, connected by extensive roads. |
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