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Empirical Method
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PSY120 Exam 1 Purdue

Professor Caroline Kraft Malone 2025

TermDefinition
Empirical Method A way of acquiring knowledge based on observation such as experimentation
Introspection “internal perception” - a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible
Structuralism focuses on the contents of mental processes rather than their functions
Wilhelm Wundt 1832-1920, first “psychologist”, wrote Principles of Physiological Psychology, viewed psychology as the scientific study of conscious experience.
William James 1842-1910, first American psychologist, thought psychology's purpose was to study the function of behavior in the world
Functionalism focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment and how the mind works as a whole
Sigmund Freud 1856-1939, wrote A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic Theory focuses on how a person's unconscious thoughts and early childhood experiences shape their personality and behavior
Behaviorism Ian Pavlov (1849-1936) - the idea that behavior is shaped through the repeated pairing of stimuli and responses
Classical Conditioning John Watson (1878-1958) - studied conditioned reflexes in which an unconscious response is conditioned to be produced to a different stimulus (Little Albert Experiment)
Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) - focused on motivations underlying behavior, primarily achieving a reward and avoiding punishment
Humanism Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) - a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans
Hierarchy of Needs the idea that if the most basic needs are met, higher level needs will motivate behavior
Multicultural Psychologists conduct research on diverse populations within the same country
Cross-Cultural Psychologists compare populations across countries
Biopsychology how biology influences behavior
Evolutionary Psychology uses evolutionary principles such as adaptation or natural selection to explain the origins of human behaviors
Cognitive Psychology studies cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions
Developmental Psychology the scientific study of development across the lifespan
Personality Psychology focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique
Social Psychology focuses on how we interact with and relate to others
Industrial-Organizational Psychology applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings
Clinical Psychology focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
Counseling Psychology focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy
Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization (hypothesis) that is used to reach logical conclusions about the world
Inductive Reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations
Theory well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Tested with hypotheses.
Hypothesis a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement. Must be falsifiable. Generated from theories.
Case Studies research in which an individual or group of individuals is studied in-depth for a long period of time. Gives High-quality and detailed information and provides information on lesser-known phenomena. Low generalizability
Naturalistic Observation observing behaviors of individuals in a natural context where participants are unaware that they are being observed. Increases generalizability but is hard to set up and conduct because of lack of control. Also could be biased.
Survey questionnaires that are answered by research participants. Easy to collect a lot of data in a short period of time, convenient, and more likely to have a diverse sample. Not in-depth and participants could be dishonest
Archival Research Using past records and data sets to answer research questions
Cross-sectional compares multiple segments of a population at a single time. Able to collect a lot of data at once and allows comparisons between age groups. Cannot establish cause and effect relationships
Longitudinal studies in which the same group of individuals is measured repeatedly over an extended period of time. Able to see changes but requires a lot of resources and cannot establish cause/effect
Correlation Relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does. Represented by r from -1 to 1.
Strength the more positive or more negative a correlation is, the greater strength it has.
Illusory Correlation Seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists
Confounding Variable unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable
Causation vs. Correlation Causation is when one variable directly causes a change in the other while correlation is when the variables simply have a small effect on each other. Correlation does not equal causation.
Experimental group participants that experience the manipulated variable
Control group participants that do not experience the manipulated variable. Serve as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study
Operational definition description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables
Bias when participant or researcher expectations skew the results of the study
Placebo people’s expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation
Independent variable the variable that is influenced/controlled/manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent variable the variable the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had - outcome variable
Random sample subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Connivence sample Anyone who is available can be chosen, creating the ease of study
Representative sample Same percentage of male/female, ethnicity, SES, etc. as the whole population or demographic category
Peer-review provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication. Determines whether the research is described clearly enough to be replicated by other researchers.
Replication the ability to produce the same results from an experiment. Determines reliability of original research design.
Reliablity consistency and reproducibility of a given result. A reliable, consistent measurement does not always mean that it is measuring something correctly
Validity accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure. Does a test measure what it is meant to measure?
IRB Committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants.
Informed Consent process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate
Random Assignment Method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group
4 components of Informed Consent Potential risks involved. Implications of the research. Notification that participation is voluntary. Notification that any data collected will be kept confidential
Theory of Evolution The idea that organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off
Genetics how inherited genes can affect not just the physiological, but psychological traits of a person
Dominant Allele result in expression of that phenotype
Recessive Allele will only be physically expressed if the person is homozygous for that allele
Polygenetic Inhereitence when a single trait is influence by multiple different genes - eye color/hair color
Epigenetics study of gene-environment interactions such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes
Neuron nerve cell that is the basic unit of the nervous system. Electrical signal received at dendrites, pass through the soma, down the axon which is covered in myelin sheaths, ending in terminal buttons which contain synaptic vesicles
Synapse The space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite of a neighboring neuron
Threshold of Excitiation level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active
Action Potential an electrical signal that is an all-or-none principle.
Reuptake moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon terminal from which it was released
Aceytlcholine Muscle action, memory - Increased arousal, enhanced cognition
Endorphins Pain, pleasure - Decreased anxiety, decreased tension
Dopamine Mood, sleep, learning - Increased pleasure, suppressed appetite
GABA Brain function, sleep - Decreased anxiety, decreased tension
Glutamate Memory, learning - Increased learning, enhanced memory
Norepinephrine Heart, intestines, alertness - Increased arousal, suppressed appetite
Serotonin Mood, sleep - Modulated mood, suppressed appetite
Psychotropic medication drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance
Agonist drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter
Antagonist drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter
Central Nervous System Brain and Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System Somatic (relays body info to CNS) and Autonomic (relays visceral info)
Sympathetic NS fight or flight for stress-related activities
Parasympathetic NS rest and restore for day to day activities
Lateralization each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions. Left controls right and right controls left
Cerebral Cortex higher level processes - 4 lobes (forebrain)
Thalamus sensory relay (forebrain)
Hypothalamus homeostasis (forebrain)
Pituitary Gland master gland of the endocrine system (forebrain)
Limbic System emotion and memory (forebrain)
Motor cortex strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement (frontal)
Prefrontal cortex responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning (frontal)
Broca’s area region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production (frontal)
Phineas Gage an iron rod to penetrated through Gage’s skull and frontal lobe. After the accident, changes in his personality
Somatosensory cortex essential for processing sensory information from across the body (parietal)
Auditory cortex strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information
Wernicke's Area speech comprehension
Primary visual cortex visual processing (occipital)
Amygdala tying emotional meaning to our memories (Limbic System)
Hippocampus regulates homeostatic processes (Limbic System)
Reticular Formation important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity
Substantia nigra where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement.
VTA where dopamine is produced; associated with mood, reward, and addiction
Medulla controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate (hindbrain)
Pons connects the brain and the spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep (hindbrain)
Cerebellum controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory (hindbrain)
PET scan helpful for showing activity in different parts of the brain. Involves injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance and monitoring changes in blood flow
CT scan Involves x-rays and creates an image through x-rays passing through varied densities within the brain. can show tumors.
MRI magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged
fMRI MRI that show changes in metabolic activity over time
EEG Involves recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp
Thyroid secretes Thyroxine which regulates growth, metabolism and appetite
Adrenal Gland secretes hormones involved in the stress response
Gonad secretes sex hormones, which are important for successful reproduction, and regulate sexual motivation and behavior
Pancreas secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar
Circadian Rhythm biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours. Generated by SCN. Sleep/wake cycle
Melatonin stimulated by darkness, making us sleepy, and inhibited by daylight. Release from Pineal Gland
Chronotype each person's individual circadian pattern of activity
Sleep Deprivation Can result in persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation, sleeping problems and can lead to signs of depression and anxiety
Sleep Debt result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis
Sleep Rebound sleep-deprived individual will tend to take a shorter time to fall asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep
Sleep needs for 18-25 year olds 7-9 hours
Brain waves Alpha(low frequency high amplitude synchronized), Theta(low frequency low amplitude), or Delta (low frequency high amplitude desynchronized)
REM sleep dreams occur here, brain activity similar to when awake, and voluntary muscles are paralyzed
Dreams - Freud dreams as a way to gain access to the unconscious. Manifest -actual content. Latent - actual meaning
Insomnia Defined by difficulty falling or staying asleep - for at least 3 nights a week for at least one month’s time
Sleep Apnea when individuals stop breathing during their sleep, usually for 10-20 seconds or longer. Obstructive - airway is blocked. Central - CNS fails
SIDS Occurs when an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies
Narcolepsy Involves an irresistible urge to fall asleep during waking hours Often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress
Dreams - Jung dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. reflected universal archetypes.
Lucid Dreams certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dreaming state. A person becomes aware that they are dreaming
Insomnia Difficulty falling or staying asleep - for at least 3 nights a week for at least one month’s time
Parasomnia Unwanted motor behavior/experiences throughout the sleep cycle. Involves sleep walking (during slow-wave) and night terrors (during REM)
Sleep Apnea Occurs when individuals stop breathing during their sleep, usually for 10-20 seconds or longer
Obstructive vs central sleep apnea Obstructive - airway becomes blocked and air is prevented from entering the lungs. Central - CNS fails to initiate breaths
SIDS Occurs when an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies.
Narcolepsy Irresistible urge to fall asleep during waking hours. Often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress.
Cataplexy Loss of muscle tone while awake or in some cases complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles.
Hypnagogic hallucinations Vivid, dream-like hallucinations
Physiological dependence to drugs involves changes in normal bodily functions and withdrawal upon cessation of use
Psychological dependence to drugs emotional need for the drug
Tolerance occurs when a person requires more and more of a drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses - physiological dependence.
Withdrawal negative symptoms experienced when drug use is ceased
Depressants Drugs that suppress the central nervous system activity. Work by binding to GABA receptors which makes the neuron less likely to fire. Alcohol, Barbiturates, and Benzodiazepines.
Hallucinogens Cause changes in sensory and perceptual experiences. Can involve vivid hallucinations. Mescaline, LSD, Psilocybin, PCP, ketamine, and MDMA.
Opiates Serve as analgesics (decrease pain) through their effects on the endogenous opioid neurotransmitter system. Highly addictive. Heroine, Morphine, Methadone, and Codeine.
Stimulants Increase overall levels of neural activity. Can be highly addictive - increased alertness, mild euphoria, decreased appetite. Cocaine, Amphetamine, Cathinones, and MDMA.
Created by: amos20
 

 



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