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Psychology
words and questions
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Learning | The relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as the result of experience. |
| E.L. Thorndike | Suggested the LAW OF EFFECT, which was the precursor of operant conditioning. The law postulated a cause-and-effect chain of behavior revolving around reinforcement. |
| Kurt Lewin | Developed the THEORY OF ASSOCIATION, which was a forerunner of behaviorism. Association is grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space. This idea is abasically waht Ivan Pavlov later proved experimentally. |
| Ivan Pavlov | Classical conditioning, also known as pavlovian conditioning, involves teaching an organism to respond to a neutral stimullus with a non-so-neutral stimulus. |
| John B. Watson | Watson's idea of learning was that everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains and that conditioning was the key factor in developing these chains. Only objective and observable elements were of importance to organisms and to psychology. |
| B.F. Skinner | Conducted 1st scientific experiment to prove Thorndikes Law and Watson's theory. Idea of behavior being influenced by reinforcement is operant conditioning. Skinner used rats and a box. Proved that animals are influenced by reinforcement. |
| Classical conditioning | involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a non-so-neutral stimulus; this creates a relationship between the two. |
| Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) | The not-so-neutral stimulus. In Pavlov's dog experiments, the UCS is the food. Without conditiniong, the stimulus elicits the response of salivating. |
| Conditioned Stimulus | Neutral Stimulus that is paired w/ the UCS. The CS has no naturally occuring response but is conditioned through pairings with UCS. In CC, the CS (light) is paired w/ UCS (the food). |
| Unconditioned Response | The naturally occurring response to the UCS |
| Conditioned Response | The response that the CS elicits after conditioning. The UCR and the CR are the same (salivating to food or a light, for example). |
| Simultanous Conditioning | The UCS and CS are presented at the same time |
| High-Order Conditioning/Second-Order Conditioning | A conditioning technique in which a previous CS now acts as a UCS. |
| Forward Conditioning | Pairing of the CS and the UCS in which the CS is presented before the UCS. Two types of forward conditioning are DELAYED CONDITIONING and TRACE CONDITIONING |
| Delayed Conditioning | The presentation of the CS begins before that of the UCS and lasts until the UCS is presented. |
| Trace Conditioning | The CS stimulus is presented and terminated before the UCS is presented. |
| Operant Conditioning | Aims to influence a response through various reinforcement strategies. In Skinner's experiments, using the SKINNER BOX, the basic idea was that rats repeated behaviors that won them rewrads and gave up behaviors that did not. |
| Differential Reinforcement of Successive Approximations | Another word for SHAPING (e.g. rewarding rats with pellets for getting progressively closer to the lever in a Skinner Box) |
| Primary Reinforcement | A natural reinforcement. Something that is reinforcing on its own without the requirement of learning. Food and water are primary reinforcers. |
| Secondary Reinforcement | A learned reinforcer. Money is a perfect example. They are often learned through society. Other examples are prestige, awards, and a token economy. |
| Positive Reinforcement | A type of reward or positive event acting as a stimulus that increases that likelihood of a particular response. Some subjects are not motivated by rewards because they don't believe or understand that the rewards will be given. |
| Negative Reinforcement | It is NOT punishment or the delivery of a negative consequence. Rather, it is reinforcement through the removal of a negative event |
| Negative Reinforcement v. Punishment | Neg. Reinforcement encourages subject to behave a certain way while punishment encourages subject to stop behaving a certain way. Neg Rein. removes a negative event while punishment inroduces a neg. event. |
| Continuous Reinforcement Schedule | Every correct response is met w/ reinforcement. Facilitates the quickest learning but also the most fragile. |
| Partial Reinforcement Schedule | Not all correct responses are met with reward. May require a longer learning time, but once learned- behaviors are more resistant to extinction. 4 types: fixed, variable, fixed interval, and variable interval |
| Fixed Ratio Schedule | A reinforcement is delievered after a consistent number of responses. Behavior is vulnerable to extinction. |
| Variable Ratio Schedule | Learning takes the most time to occur, but is least likely to become extinct. Rewards delieverd after a different number of correct responses. |
| Fixed Interval Schedule | Does little to motivate behavior. Rewards come after the passage of a certain time, regardless of behavior. |
| Variable Interval Schedule | Rewards are delivered after differing time periods. Second most effective strategy in maintaining behavior. |
| Token Economy | Artifical micro economy usually found in prisons, rehab, or mental hospitals. Individuals are motivated by secondary reinforcers. |
| Motivation and Performance | Sometimes people are motivated by primary or instinctual drives. Other times, they are motivated by secondary drives. |
| Theories that Assert that Humans are Primarily Motivated to Maintain Physiological or Psychological Homeostasis | Heider's Balance Theory, Osgood and Tannenbaum's Congruity Theory, Festingers Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Desire to be balanced with respect to feelings. |
| Clark Hull | Proposed that performance= drive x habit. This means that individuals are first motivated by drive and then act according to habit. |
| Edward Tolman | Proposed that Performance = expectation x value. The idea is that people are motivated by goals that they think they might actually meet. |
| Victor Vroom | Applied Tolman's theory to individual behavior in large companies. Individuals who are the lowest rung do not expect to receive incentives- so they aren't motivated by them. |
| Murray and McClelland | Studied that people are motivated by a 'need for achievement.' Manifested through a need to pursue success or a need to avoid failure. |
| John Atkinson | suggested a theory of motivation in which peoople who set realistic goals with intermediate risks sets feel pride with accomplishment and want to succeed more than they fear failure. |
| Neil Miller | Proposed the Approach-Avoidance Conflict which refers to the state one feels when certain goals has both pros and cons. |
| Hedonism | The theory that individuals are motivated solely by what brings the most pleasure. |
| The Premack Principle | The idea that people are motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves afterwards with something they like to do. |
| Donald Hebb | Postulated that a medium amount of arousal is best for performance; memory involves changes of synapses and neural pathways |
| Yerkes Dodson Effect | that good performance on simple tasks requires a high level of arousal, and good performance on complex tasks requires a low level. The optimal level of arousal for any type of task, however, is never at the extremes |
| Stimulus Discrimination | Refers to the ability to discriminate between different but similar stimuli. For instance, a doorbell ringing means something different from a phone ringing |
| Response learning | Refers to the form of learning in which one links together chains of stimuli and responses. One learns what to do in response to particular triggers. e.g. leaving a buliding in response to a fire alarm |
| Perceptual or Concept learning | refers to learning about something in general rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains. An individual learns about something, rather than any particular response |
| Aversive Conditioning | Uses negative reinforcement to control behavior. An animal is motivated to perform a certain behavior in order to escape or avoid a negative stimulus. |
| Avoidance Conditioning | Teaches an animal how to avoid something the animal does not want. |
| Escape Conditioning | Teaches an animal to perform a desired behavior to get away from a negative stimulus. |
| Punishment | Promotes extinction of undesired behavior. Acts as a negative stimulus. |
| Autonomic conditioning | Refers to evoking responses of the autonomic nervous system through training. |
| State dependent learning | Refers to the concept that what a person leans in one physiological state is best recalled in that state. |
| Extinction | The reversal of conditioning. The goal is to encourage an organism to stop doing a particular behavior. |
| Latent learning | Takes place even without reinforcement. The actual learning is revealed at some other time |
| Incidental learning | Like accidental learning. Unrelated items are grouped together during incidental learning. |
| Chaining | the act of linking together behaviors that result in reinforcement. |
| Habituation | The decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus as a result of increasing familiarity with the stimulus. |
| Spontaneous Recovery | The reappearances of an extinguished response, even in the absence of a more prominent stimulus. |
| Autoshaping | Refers to experiments in which an apparatus allows an animal to control its reinforcement through behaviors |
| Social learning theory | Posits that individuals learn through their culture. People learn what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors through interacting in society. |
| Modeling | A specific concept within SOCIAL LEARNING. It refers to learning and behaving by imitating others. |
| Albert Bandura's Bobo doll study | Children who watched adults phyically abuse a blowup doll in a playroom proceeded to do the same during their playtime with Bobo doll; children who did not witness the aggression did not behave in this way. |
| Observational Learning | Simply the act of learning something by watching. |
| John Garcia | Discovered that animals are programmed through evolution to make certain connections. He studied conditioned nausea with rats and found that nausea was perceived to be connected with food or drink |
| The Garcia Effect | he extremely strong connection that animals form between nausea and food has been used to explain why humans can become sick only one time from eating a particular food and are never able to eat that food again |
| M.E. Olds | Performed experiments in which electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain were used as positive reinforcement. Animals would perform behaviors to receive the stimulation |
| Hull-Spence Theory of Learning | Hypothesizes that animals learn to respond differently to different stimuli. This is a theory of discrimination learning. |
| Continuous v. Discrete Motor Tasks | Continous tasks are easier to learn than discrete motor tasks |
| Positive transfer | It is previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task later. |
| Negative transfer | Previous learning that makes it more difficult to learn a new task. |
| Age and learning | Humans are primed to learn between the ages of 3 and 20. From the age of 20 to 50, the ability to learn remains fairly constant. After the age of 50, the ability to learn drops. |
| Language | the meaningful arrangement of sounds |
| Psycholinguistics | The study of the psychology of language |
| Phonemes | Discrete sounds that make up words but carry no meaning |
| Morphemes | Made up of phonemes; the smallest units of meaning in language |
| Morphology or Morphological rules | Grammar rules; how to group morphemes |
| Prosody | Tone inflections, accents, and other aspects of pronunciation that carry meaning |
| Noam Chomsky | Undoubtedly the most impotant figure in psycholinguistics. |
| Transformational Grammar | (Noam Chomsky) Differentiates between surface structure and deep structure in language. |
| Surface Structure | In Noam Chomsky's Transformational Grammar, it is the underlying meaning of arrangements of words. |
| Language Acquisition Device (LAD) | Chomsky proposed that humans have an inborn ability to adopt generative grammar rules of the language they ahve. |
| Overregularization | The overapplication of grammar rules. For example, children realize that past tense is indicated by teh sufficx -ed. Then they add this to verbs that don't actually need it. |
| Overextension | Generalizing with names for things. This is often done through chaining characteristics rather than through logic. For example, a three-year-old may call any furry thing a doggie. |
| Telegraphic speech | Refers to speech without the articles or extras, similar to how it would appear in a telegram, such as "Me go." |
| Holophrastic speech | When a young child uses one word (holophrases) to convey a whole sentence. "Me" may mean "give that to me." |
| Girls v. Boys and language | Girls are faster and more accurage with language learning than boys are. |
| Bilingual children and language | Are slower at language learning. |
| Language acquisition milestones | 1 year - speaks first words 2 years - >50 spoken words, usually in two-(and then three-) word phrases 3 years - 1,000 word vocabulary, but has many grammatical errors 4 years - grammar problems are random exceptions |
| Benjamin Whorf | Posited that language influences that culture's perspective. |
| Roger Brown | Researched the areas of social, developmental, and linguistic psychology. He found that children's understanding of grammatical rules develops as they make hypotheses about how syntax works and then self-correct with experience |
| Katherine Nelson | Found that language really begins to develop with the onset of ACTIVE SPEECH rather than during the first year of only listening. |
| William Labov | Studied "Black" English (now known as Ebonics) and found that it had its own complex internal structure. It is not simply incorrect English |
| Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria | studied the development of word meanings and found them to be complex and altered by interpersonal experience. Also, they asserted that language is a tool involved in (not just a byproduct of) the development of abstract thinking |
| Charles Osgood | Studied semantics. Created CHARTS Allowed people to plot the meanings of words on graphs. Results were that people with similar backgrounds and interests ploted words similarly. Indicates that words have similar connotations for cultures or subcultures. |
| Three Stages of Memory | 1) Sensory, 2) Short Term, 3) Long Term |
| Sensory Memory | Lasts only seconds; Forms connections btw perception and memory; Expains afterimages |
| Iconic Memory | Studied by Sperling. Found that people could see more than they remember. |
| Ulric Neisser | Coined the term Icon and found that it lasts for a second. Found that when exposed to a bright light or new image, the old will be erased. Called Backward Masking. |
| Echoic Memory | The sensory memory for auditory sensations. |
| Short-Term Memory (STM) | Temporary; lasts for seconds or minutes. Is thought to be largely auditory, and items are coded PHONOLOGICALLY. |
| George Miller | Found that short-term meory has the capacidy of about seven items (+ or - two items). |
| Chunking | Grouping items. Can increase the capacity of STM. |
| Rehearsal | Repeating or practicing. Is the key to keeping items in the STM and to transferring items to the long-term memory (LTM). |
| Interference | When other information or distrctactions cause one to forget items in STM. |
| Long-Term Memory (LTM) | Capable of permanent retention. Most items are learned SEMANTICALLY, for meaning. Is not subject to primacy and recency effects but is subject to the same interference effects as STM. |
| Recognition | A measure of LTM. Simply requires subjects to recognize things learned in the past. Multiple-choice tests tap recognition. |
| Recall | Measure of LTM. Requires that subjects generate information on their own. CUED RECALL begins the task; fill-in-the blank tests are an example. FREE RECALL is remembering with no clue. |
| Savings | Measure of LTM. Measures how much information about a subject remains in LTM by assessing how long it takes to learn something the second time as opposed to the first time. |
| Encoding Specificity Principle | A principle of the LTM, which means that material is more likely to be remembered if it is retrieved in the same context in which it was stored. |
| Episodic Memory | Consists of details, events, and discrete knowledge. |
| Semantic Memory | Consists of general knowledge of the world. |
| Procedural memory | Knowing "how to" do something. |
| Declarative memory | Knowing a fact. |
| Hermann Ebbinghaus | Was the first to study memory systematically. presented subjects with lists of nonsense syllables to study the STM.proposed a FORGETTING CURVE that shows a sharp drop in savings immediately after learning and then levels off, with a slight downward trend |
| Frederick Bartlett | Memory is reconstructive; discoverd that people are more likely to remember the ideas or semantics than details |
| Allan Paivio | - Suggested the DUAL CODE HYPOTHESIS, which states that items will be remembered if they are encoded both visually (with icons or imagery) and semantically (with understanding). |
| Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart | Learning and recall depend on depth of processing; different levels of processing exist; the deeper it is processed- the easier to recall |
| Behaviorists and memory | - Explain memory through PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING. One item is learned with, and then cues the recall of, another. |
| Elizabeth Loftus | Memory of traumatic events is altered by event and way questions are phrased; |
| Primary rehearsal | involves repeating material in order to hold it in STM. |
| Secondary Rehearsal | involves organizing and understanding material in order to transfer it to LTM. |
| Proactive Interference | Disrupting material that was learned before the new items were presented. Causes Proactive inhibition |
| Retroactive Interference | Disrupting information that was learned after the new items were presented. It can lead to Retroactive Inhibition. |
| E.R. Kandel | Had similar ideas to Hebb about memory from studying the sea slug Splysia. Also, brain studies of young chick show that their brains are altered with learning and memory |
| Brenda Milner | Wrote about patient "HM" who was given a lesion of the HIPPOCAMPUS to treat severe epilepsy. He could not add anything to his LTM. |
| Serial learning | A list is learned and recalled in order; Subject to Primacy and Recency effects; |
| Primacy and Recency Effects | the first and last few items learned are easiest to remember, whereas the ones in the middle are often forgotten. |
| Serial-anticipation learning | A list is learned |
| Paired-associate learning | - The type of learning used in studying foreign languages- |
| Free-recall learning | - A list of items is learned, and then must be recalled in any order with no cue. |
| Factors that make items on a list easier to learn and retrieve | 1) Acoustic dissimilarity, 2) Semantic dissimilarity, 3) Brevity, 4) Familiarity, 5) Concreteness, 6) Meaning, 7) Importance to the subject. |
| Decay Theory (Trace Theory) | Memory fades with time; |
| Interference Theory | Suggests that competing information blocks retrieval. |
| Mnemonics | Cue that help with learning and recall |
| Generation-recognition Model | Suggests that anything one might recall should easily be recognized. This is why a multiple-choice test is easier than an essay test. |
| Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon | Being on the verge of retrieval but not successfully doing so. |
| Clustering | brain's tendency to group together similar items in memory, whether they are learned together or not. |
| Hypotheses | Ideas used to test relationships and then to form concepts |
| Concepts | How one represents the relationship between two things. We organize our world through concepts. |
| Problem space | the sum total of possible moves that one might make in order to solve a problem |
| Confirmation bias | Logical reasoning error; remembering and using information that confirms what you already think |
| Computer simulation models | designed to solve problems as humans do; |
| Prototypes | The REPRESENTATIVE or "usual" type of an event or object. (e.g. A scientist is someone who is good in math and does not write poetry.) |
| Semantic effect | logical reasoning error;Believining in conclusions because of what you know or think to be correct rather than what logically follows from the information given. |
| Deductive reasoning | Leads to a specific conclusion that must follow from the information given. |
| Atmosphere effect | Logical reasoning error; When a conclusion is influenced by the way information is phrased. |
| Algorithms | Problem-solving strategies that consider every possible solution and eventualy hit on the correct solution. This may take a great deal of time |
| Allan Collins and Ross Quillian | Assert that people make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. The further apart the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection. |
| Stroop effect | Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors, such as when the word "yellow" is printed with blue ink. |
| Heuristics | Problem-solving strategies that use rules of thumb or short-cuts based on what has worked in the past. |
| Metacognition | Refers to the process of thinking about your own thinking; It might involve knowing what solving strategies to apply and when to apply them, or knowing how to adapt your thinking to new situations. |
| Inductive reasoning | Leads to general rules that are inferred from specifics |
| Eye movements and gaze durations | Indicators of information processing while reading |
| Automatic processing | When a task is effortlessly done because the task is subsumed under a higher organization process. |
| Semantic priming | the prime and the target are from the same semantic category and share features[11]. For example, the word dog is a semantic prime for wolf, because the two are both similar animals |
| Schema | Cognitive structure that includes ideas about events or objects; new events and objects are organized by how well they match |
| Insight | having a new perspective on an old problem. The A-ha! experience. |
| Scripts | Ideas about the way events typically unfold. |
| Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion (aka. Emergency Theory) | Emotions and Bodily reactions occur at the same time; |
| James-Lange Theory of Emotion | Bodily reactions to situations cause emotions |
| Bottom up Processing | Is recognizing an item or pattern from data or details (data driven). |
| Mediation | The intervening mental process that occurs between stimulus and response |
| Schachter-Singer's Cognitive Theory of Emotion | Emotions are products of physiological reactions; How we interpret the state is key; |
| Reaction time | Latency; used to measure cognitive processing; |
| Convergent Thinking | The type of thinking used to find the one solution to a problem. Math is an example; introduced by Guilford |
| Associations between pictures vs. associations between words | It takes longer to make assocations between pictures than between words, probably because pictures must mentally be put into words before associations can be made. |
| Mental set or set | The preconceived notion of how to look at a problem. This may help future problem solving. |
| Functional fixedness | The idea that people develop closed minds about the functions of certain objects. From this, they cannot think of creative uses or think divergently |
| Elizabeth Loftus and Allen Collins | Suggested that people have HIERARCHICAL SEMANTIC NETWORKS in their memory that group together related items |
| Saccades | Eye movements from one fixation point to another. |
| Divergent Thinking | Used when more than one possibility eists in a situation. Playing chess or creative thinking are examples |
| Closure | The tendency to complete incomplete figures. |
| Purkinje shift | The way that perceived color brightness changes with the level of illumination in the room |
| Visual field | Refers to the entire span that can be perceived or detected by the eye at a given moment. |
| Terminal threshold | The upper limit after which the stimuli can no longer be perceived. |
| Muller-Lyer illusion | Two horizonal lines of equal length appear unequal because of the orientation of the arrow marks at the end. |
| Ambiguous figures | Can be perceived as two different things depending on how you look at them. |
| Apparent size | Gives us clues about how far away an object is if we know about how big the object should be. |
| Pragnanz | Is the overarching Gestalt idea that experience will be organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and simple whenever possible. |
| A miss (TSD) | Is failing to detect a present stimulus. |
| Simulations | Most often explained by TEMPLATE MATCHING and FEATURE DECTION. |
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