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4.The mechanism that establishes the medullary osmotic gradient depends most on the permeability properties of the
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7.An increase in the permeability of the cells of the collecting tubule to water is due to
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Anatomy exam 4!
final anatomy exam!
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| 4.The mechanism that establishes the medullary osmotic gradient depends most on the permeability properties of the | Loop of Henle |
| 7.An increase in the permeability of the cells of the collecting tubule to water is due to | An increase in production of ADH |
| 8.The urinary bladder is composed of ________ epithelium | Transitional |
| 9.The kidneys are stimulated to produce rennin under what circumstances | - When arterial blood pressure drops - when the NaCl level of the filtrate is low |
| 10.Blood vessels of the renal columns are called ____________ | Interlobar |
| 11.Which gland sits atop each kidney? | Adrenal Glands |
| 12.The ________ artery lies on the boundary between the cortex and medulla of the kidney | Arcuate |
| 13.The glomerulus differs from other capillaries in the body in that it | it drains into an efferent arteriole rather than a venule |
| 16.The fatty tissue surrounding the kidneys is important because | Holds the kidneys in their normal position keeping them stable |
| 17.The renal corpuscle is made up of | Bowman's capsule & glomerulus |
| 18.The functional and structural unit of the kidneys is | Nephron |
| 19.The juxtaglomerular apparatus is responsible for | regulating the rate of filtration formation and controlling systemic blood pressure |
| 20.The chief force pushing water and solutes out of the blood across the filtration membrane | glomerular hydrostatic pressure |
| 21.Describe the histology of the ureters | Each kidney is connected to the urinary bladder by a ureter. The ureter is a muscular tube. It is about 25 to 28 cm long. The ureter consists of three layers of tissue which are the fibrous coat, Muscular coat, and the Mucosa |
| 22.The first major branch of the renal artery is: | Interlobular |
| 23.What acts as the trigger for the initiation of micturition (voiding | The stretching of the bladder wall |
| 25.The mechanism of water reabsorption by the renal tubules is __________________ | Osmosis |
| 26.Describe electrolyte reabsorption by the renal tubules | hormonally controlled in distal tubule segments |
| 27.The macula densa cells respond to | changes in solute content of the filtrate |
| The fluid in the glomerular 29.(Bowman's) capsule is similar to plasma except that it does not contain a significant amount of | Plasma protein |
| 30.Alcohol acts as a diuretic because it | Inhibits the release of ADH |
| 31.The function of angiotensin II is to | Constrict arterioles and increase blood pressure |
| 32.An important characteristic of urine is its specific gravity or density, which is | 1.001 to 1.035 |
| 33.What would happen if the capsular hydrostatic pressure were increased above normal? | - Net filtration would decrease |
| 34.List the parts of the juxtaglomerular apparatus? | Granular Cells, macula densa cells, mesangial cells |
| 37.Reabsorption of high levels of glucose and amino acids in the filtrate is accomplished by | Secondary active transport |
| 38.While the kidneys process about 180 L of blood-derived fluids daily, the amount that actually leaves the body is | 1% or 1.8 L |
| 39.The factor favoring filtrate formation at the glomerulus is | glomerular hydrostatic pressure |
| 40.If the Tm for a particular amino acid is 120 mg/100 ml and the concentration of that amino acid in the blood is 230 mg/100 ml, the amino acid will _______________ | appear in the urine |
| 41.If one says that the clearance value of glucose is zero, what does this mean? | Normally, all the glucose is reabsorbed |
| 42.Excretion of dilute urine requires | Impermeability of the collecting tubule to water |
| 45.The disruption in homeostasis known as pyelitis is | inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney, caused by bacterial infection |
| 46.The capillary bed that surrounds the descending and ascending loop of Henle is called the | Vasa Recta |
| 47.Abnormally low output of urine is called | anuria |
| 48.Urine crystals in the renal pelvis are called | Renal calculi |
| 49.The areas on either side of the renal pyramids are called the renal | columns |
| 50.The area between the ureters and urethra is called the ________ in a bladder | trigone |
| 51.The _______ mechanism is the general tendency of vascular smooth muscle to contract when stretched | _myogenic |
| 52.The renal clearance rate equation is RC = | UV/P |
| 53.The presence of pus in the urine is a condition called | Pyuria |
| 54.Sodium-linked water flow across a membrane is called ________ water reabsorption | Obligatory |
| 56.Explain how filtration works in the glomerular capillaries | The glomerular capillaries are fenestrated, allowing fairly large molecules to pass |
| 57.List three substances that are abnormal urinary constituents and provide the proper clinical term for such abnormalities | Glucose: Glycosuria -Proteins: Proteinuria - Hemoglobin: Hemoglobinuria |
| 58.Explain the role of aldosterone in sodium and water balance. | it targets the distal tubule and collecting duct and enhances sodium ion reasbsorption so that very little leaves the body in urine. |
| 59.Explain what is meant by the terms cotransport process and transport maximum | Cotransport: actives transport of one solute with movement of another during tubular reabsorption. - Transport Maximum: Reflects tht number of carriers in the renal tubules |
| 61.List and describe three pressures operating at the filtration membrane, and explain how each influences net filtration pressure | - Glomerular hydrostatic: the chief force pushing water and solutes out of the blood across the filtration membrane |
| 61.List and describe three pressures operating at the filtration membrane, and explain how each influences net filtration pressure | - Colloid osmotic pressure: Pulls the filtrate into the tubule, pressure is zero because of no proteins entering |
| 61.List and describe three pressures operating at the filtration membrane, and explain how each influences net filtration pressure | - Capsular hydrostatic pressure: back pressure due to the presence of fluid already in the renal tubule and the resistance of the tubule walls |
| 63.What are aquaporins? | Water-filled pores in water-permeable portions of the convoluted tubules such as the PCT |
| 64.Freshly voided urine has very little smell, but shortly after voiding it can take a very strong smell, why? | Because it is relatively sterile but if allowed to stand the bacteria begins to metabolizes its urea solutes |
| Edema | Swelling caused by watery fluid collecting in the cavities or tissues of the body |
| Addison’s disease | inadequate secretion of hormones by the adrenal cortex |
| Aldosterone | stimulates absorption of sodium by the kidneys |
| Osmoreceptors | detects changes in osmotic pressure |
| In which compartments are the following electrolytes highest in concentration: Sodium ions, Potassium ions, Phosphate ions, Bicarbonate ions, and Proteins | - Sodium Ions: Extracellular -Potassium Ions: Intracellular - Phosphate ions: Intracellular - Bicarbonate: Intracellular -Proteins: Intracellular and Extracellular |
| Water occupies two main fluid compartments within the body, the intracellular fluid compartment and the extracellular fluid compartment. How do the fluid volumes of these compartments compare | - two-thirds of the water is in the intracellular fluid compartment the rest is in the extracellular |
| 70.Edema may result from | - lymphatic blockage |
| 71.The fluid link between the external and internal environment is | Plasma |
| 72.Whereas sodium is found mainly in the extracellular fluid, most _____ is found in the intracellular fluid. | potassium |
| 73.Describe the distribution of sodium and potassium between cells and body fluids? | - K+ mainly in the cells, Na + in the body fluids |
| 74.The single most important factor influencing potassium ion secretion is | potassium ion concentration in blood plasma |
| 75.What regulates the movement of fluids between cellular compartments? | osmotic and hydrostatic forces |
| 76.Describe the maintenance of electrolyte balance and the factors which may disrupt it | may be disturbed due to higher loss of electrolytes on hot days |
| 77.Describe the role of Parathyroid hormone | is the most important control of calcium homeostasis |
| 78.Extracellular fluid in the human body is composed of | interstitial fluid, lymph and transcellular fluid |
| 80.Which hormones are important in stimulating water conservation in the kidneys? The total body water is divided into intracellular and extracellular fluids. Plasma is considered: | antidiuretic hormone (ADH) -Plasma is extracellular |
| 81.Disorders of water balance include | Edema |
| 82.Describe the mechanisms and consequences of the regulation of sodium | involves aldosterone, a hormone that increases sodium excretion in the kidneys |
| 83.One of the major physiological factors that triggers thirst is | a rise in plasma osmolarity |
| 84.Annie has just eaten a large order of heavily salted french fries, some pickled eggs, and some cheese. How will consuming this much salt affect her physiology? | There will be a temporary increase in blood volume |
| 35. Describe the process of tubular reabsorption | by active mechanisms usually involves movement against an electrical and/ or chemical gradient |
| 28.List the materials that are reabsorbed by the proximal convoluted tubule? | Sodium, Potassium, and Glucose |
| 60.Humans can survive for a period of time without water thanks to the ability of the kidneys to produce concentrated urine. Briefly explain what factors allow this to happen. | Water is conserved and the urine becomes concentrated. The water that passes through these regions is reabsorbed by the body in order to prevent dehydration |
| 62.In addition to the renin-angiotensin mechanism, the renal cells produce other chemicals. Name five, and briefly give the main function of each | prostaglandins: regulate GFR, Nitric oxide: produced by vascular endothelium, Adenosine: constricts renal vasculature, endothelin: inhibits renin release |
| 65.Define the following terms: Electrolytes, Nonelectrolytes, Extracellular,Intracellular, and Interstitial | •Electrolytes-dissociate in water •Nonelectrolytes-do not dissociate •Extracellular- the fluid compartments outside the cell •Intracellular- fluid compartments located within the cell •Interstitial-spaces between cells |
| 66.66. Define the following terms: Hypermagnesemia, Hypocalcemia, Hypernatremia, Hyperkalemia, and Hyponatremia | •Hypermagnesemia-magnesium excess •Hypocalcemia-calcium depletion •Hypernatremia-sodium excess •Hyperkalemia-potassium excess •Hyponatremia-sodium depletion |
| 86.List those functions that depend on the presence of electrolytes? | •Membrane polarity, neuromuscular excitability, maintenance of osmotic relations between cells and ECF |
| 85.The most important force causing net water flow across capillary walls is | hydrostatic pressure of capillary blood |
| 87.Describe the regulation of potassium balance | involves aldosterone-induced secretion of potassium |
| 88.The term hypotonic hydration refers to | a condition that may result from renal insufficiency or drinking extraordinary amounts of water |
| 89.Hypoproteinemia is a condition of unusually low levels of plasma proteins. This problem is often characterized by | •Tissue edema |
| 90.Which hormones are important in the regulation of sodium ion concentrations in the extracellular fluid? | •aldosterone |
| 91.Atrial natriuretic peptide is a hormone that is made in the atria of the heart. The influence of this hormone is | •Reduce blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting sodium and water retension |
| 92. The female hormone ________ seems to decrease sodium reabsorption, thus promoting sodium and water loss by the kidney. | progesterone |
| 93.The preferred intracellular negative ion is _____. | hydrogen phosphate |
| 94.The most important hormone that regulates calcium ions in the body is _____ | PTH parathyroid hormone |
| 95.________ reduces blood pressure and volume by inhibiting nearly all events that promote vasoconstriction and the retention of sodium ions and water. | •Atrial natriuretic peptide |
| 96.Describe the influence of rising PTH levels on bone and the kidneys | •PTH activates osteoclasts that breaks down the bone matrix, resulting in the release of Ca2+ and PO34- to the blood • •PTH increases the reabsorption of calcium by the renal tubules, which simultaneously decrease phosphate ion reabsorption |
| 96.Describe the influence of rising PTH levels on the small intestine | PTH enhances intestinal absorption of Ca2+ indirectly by stimulating the kidneys to transform vitamin D to its active form, which is necessary for calcium absorption by the small intestine |
| 97.When the blood becomes hypertonic (too many solutes), ADH is released. What is the effect of ADH on the kidney tubules? | •The release of ADH causes the kidney tubules to reabsorb excess water, resulting in the excretion of concentrated urine |
| 98.When does a person experience greater thirst, during periods when ADH release is elicited or during periods when aldosterone release is elicited? | •A person experiences greater thist during period when ADH release is elicited |
| 102. The dartos and cremaster muscles are important to the integrity of the male reproductive system. Describe the role they play? | •Regulate the temperature of the testes |
| 103. The ability of sperm cells to move along the ductus deferens is due to | •Peristaltic contractions |
| 104.The ability of a male to ejaculate is due to the action of: | •bulbospongiosus |
| 105.The most important risk factor for testicular cancer in young males is | •Nondescent of the testes |
| 106.Which gland is responsible for 60% of the synthesis of semen? | •Seminal vesicles |
| 107.Which hormone controls the release of anterior pituitary gonadotropins? | •GnRH |
| 108.Development of male reproductive structures depends on __________ | •Secretion of male hormones prenatally and lasting into the first few months after birth |
| 109.The primary function of the uterus is to | •Receive, retain and nourish a fertilized ovum |
| 110.The corpus luteum | A hormone-secreting structure that develops in an ovary |
| 111.The structures that receive the ovulated oocyte, providing a site for fertilization, are called | •Fallopian tubes |
| 112.The female counterpart of the male scrotum is the ____ | labia majora |
| 113.Human egg and sperm are similar in what way | •They have the same number of chromosomes |
| 114.The constancy of the chromosome number from one cell generation to the next is maintained through | •meiosis: |
| 115.Fertilization generally occurs in the | •Fallopian tudes |
| 116.Spermiogenesis involves: | •Formation of functional sperm by the stripping away of superfluous cytoplasm |
| 117.List the male secondary sex characteristics | •Increasing mass of the skeleton •Development of body hair •Lowering the voice |
| 118. In humans, separation of the cells at the two-cell state following fertilization may lead to the production of ____________ twins, | identical |
| 119.Describe the characteristics of mature sperm | •Presence of Y chromosome in approximately half the sperm |
| 120.Describe the functions of testosterone | •Stimulates protein synthesis •Contributes to male sexual behavior and spermatogenesis •Stimulates the male pattern of development |
| 121.Describe the effects of estrogen | •Growth of the breast at puberty |
| 122.Secretion of progesterone stimulates | •Preparation of the mammary glands for lactation |
| 123.Describe the structure and function of sperm. | •The acrosome is produced by the Golgi Apparatus and contains hydrolytic enzymes •They are sluggish in an alkaline environment •They contain very little cytoplasm or stored nutrients |
| 124.The cells that produce testosterone in the testis are called: | •Interstitial cells |
| 125.The testicular cells that construct the blood-testis barrier are the: | •Sustentacular cells |
| 126.Erection of the penis results from: | •A parasympathetic reflex |
| 127.Describe the proliferative phase of the female menstrual cycle? | •Development of endometrial cells •Vesicular follicle growth •Late in this phase, cervical mucus becomes thins and crystalline |
| 132.What happens during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle: | •Progesterone levels are at their highest |
| 133.Describe the hormonal and structural changes of the uterine cycle. | •If fertilization occurs , the corpus luteum is maintained by the hormone secreted by the developing embryo |
| 135.What do the mammary glands of both males and females have in common? | •The mammary glands are mortified sweat glands that are actually part of the integumentary system |
| 136.Normally menstruation occurs when: | •Blood levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease |
| 137.The basic difference between spermatogenesis and oogenesis is that: | •In oogenesis, one mature ovum is produced, and in spermatogenesis four mature sperm are produced from the parent cell |
| 138.Occasionally three polar bodies are found clinging to the mature ovum. One came from an unequal division of the ovum, but from where did the other two arise? | •The first polar body has also divided to produce two polar bodies |
| 139.What occurs after ovulation? | •The endometrium enters its secretory phase |
| 141.Define and describe spermatogenesis | •Involves a kind of cell division limited to the gametes |
| 142.Describe the role of the brain-testicular axis: includes | 1. Anterior pituitary 2. The testis 3. The hypothalamus • Involves FSH and LH release |
| 143.Describe the process of control of testosterone secretion. | •GnRH from the hypothalamus causes FSH and LH release from the anterior pituitary |
| 144.Describe the structure and function of the uterine tubes? | •The infundibulum is the funnel-shaped region near the ovary |
| 145.Describe the hormonal events of the ovarian cycle. | •High estrogen levels results in a surge of LH release |
| 146. Describe the pathogens which cause the common sexually transmitted diseases | •Chlamydia is caused by bacteria that can often be asymptomatic or bring on a variety of symptoms |
| 147. A boy who has not passed through puberty sustains an injury to his anterior pituitary such that FSH is no longer released, but LH is normal. After he grows to maturity, one would expect that he would: | •sterile |
| 148. A low secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) in the normal male adult would cause: | •Decreased testosterone secretion |
| 149. List the components of the duct system of the male reproductive system | •Corpus spongiosum |
| 150. The ________ plexus of testicular veins assists in cooling the testis. | pampiniform |
| 151. Surgical cutting of the ductus deferens as a form of birth control is called a ________. | vasectomy |
| 152.The erectile tissue around the urethra is the corpus ______. | spongiosum |
| 153. The midpiece of the sperm tail contains mostly _ | mitochondria |
| 154. The ________ cells of the testis nourish the newly formed sperm cells. | sustenacular/sertoli |
| 155. The suspensory and mesovarium ligaments are part of the _____ ligament. | broad |
| 156. A follicle with only small antrums in it would be classified as a ___ follicle. | seconday |
| 157. The small opening of the uterus that sperm would first enter is called the ________. | external os. |
| 158. The portion of the uterine endometrium that is not sloughed off every month is called the _ | stratum basalis |
| _____ is caused by Treponema pallidum. | Syphilis |
| 160. What are some risk factors for developing breast cancer? | •Early onset of menses or late menopause •No pregnancies or the first pregnancy late in life •Previous history of breast cancer or family history •Hereditary factors including mutations on the genes BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 |
| 161. What is the name given to the female homologue to the penis? | •The clitoris is homologous to the penis |
| 162. Describe the composition and functional roles of semen | •Semen is a fluid mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretion |
| 163. Explain the function of the myometrium and endometrium. | •Myometrium plays an active role during childbirth when it contracts rhythmically… •Endometrium-mucosal lining of the uterine cavity |
| 164. What signals the corpus luteum to continue producing hormones if the oocyte is fertilized? | •Once the embryo has implanted, it sends out its own |
| 165. What is the purpose of the male bulbourethral gland? | •It produces a clear slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra •Fluid lubricates the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra |
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