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Anthropology Test 3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Major trends preceding Neolithic (economies based on food production with cultivated crops and domesticated animals) | -Diaspora (peopling of the earth) -Climate change (cold to warm) Change in subsistence, migration, and settlement patterns; ecosystems Broad spectrum of food resources: forest, animals, birds, fish, & plants -Adaptation through domestication |
| Broad-spectrum revolution (adaptation through domestication) | period beginning around 15000-12000BP, during which a broad range of plant and animal life was hunted, gathered, collected, caught, and fished. Revolutionary because it led to food production |
| Domestication | Changing the genetic makeup of a species by selecting for desired traits (evolution) ex:Smaller, more docile animals; larger, non-poisonous plants facilitated the establishment of more permanent settlements. sheep and goats - first domesticated animal |
| First domesticates and locations:First American Farmers | 3 caloric staples- maize, potato, manioc |
| First domesticates and locations: Fertile Crescent (10,000 BP) → first domesticates | -wheat, barley, sheep, goats, cattle -Hilly Flanks- woodlands N of Tigris & Euphrates Rivers -Early cultivation began in marginal areas rather than optimal areas, as an attempt to copy the dense strands of wheat and barley that grew in the Hilly Flanks |
| First domesticates and locations: East Asia (7500 BP) | rice, millet, pigs, chickens |
| Evidence of domestication: Plants | Increased seed size Increased yields Decreased defenses (husks and toxins) Loss of natural means of seed dispersal Loss of delayed seed germination |
| Evidence of domestication: Animals | Change in skeletal structure (teeth, tusks) Selection for smaller size Decrease defenses, Increased dependence |
| Broad-Spectrum Revolution | The transition from focusing on a only a few food sources (foraging) to production of a “broad spectrum” of plants and animals during the Neolithic period. |
| Early Neolithic Societies | Village life with permanent housing Size: A few hundred to a thousand Little evidence of social differentiation |
| Late Neolithic Societies | Larger settlements Monuments & earthworks with ceremonial significance profound changes in political organization Social hierarchy Elaborate burials (including grave goods) |
| Why the transition from foraging (oasis, demographic, and dump-heap theories) | -More edible calories per acre -Reliable food source and surplus -Control over the rate of reproduction and the capacity to intensify reproduction without consequences |
| Oasis Theory | Increased arid climate drove people to floodplains |
| Demographic Theory | Increased scarcity of food and resources due to population growth |
| Dump-heap Theory | Accidental fertilization (domestication of plants was accidentally facilitated by dumping trash, leftover seeds, and rinds into a pile) |
| Tradeoffs of agriculture in human history | Foraging -High Nutrition, Low Quantity -20 to 40 hours of work -Immediate reward -Low risk Agriculture -Low Nutrition, High Quantity -30 to 70 hours of work -Delayed reward -High risk (a blight or poor rain season will lower crop yields) |
| Adaptive strategies | -a production system or way of making a living -Adaptation often reflects coevolution: diverse groups of humans co-evolving with very specific kinds of environments -foraging, pastoralism, horticulture, agriculture |
| Foraging (Hunting/Gathering) | -Oldest economic system -Based on food source available within in nature -Small, mobile groups of people -Extensive strategy -Food sharing and reciprocity (mutual exchange of goods and favors) |
| Pastoralism (Herding) | -Domesticated goats, cattle, llamas, and yak -Nomadism: Whole group moves -Transhumance: Permanent settle with a few people venturing out -Tragedy of the Commons -example - Somalia (No gvmt) |
| Horticulture (Production with simple tools) | Slash and burn (swidden) Shifting cultivation: Permanent settlement with shifting from one lot of land to another Dry farming: Non-irrigating cultivation technique |
| What's left out of the horticulture story | -fire-adapted lanscapes -long history of co-evolution -mixed economy more economically sound -external intervention undermines local knowledge skills, cooperative social arrangements, locally appropriate technologies |
| Problems with shifting agriculture (swidden) | "destructive, primitive, backwards" -puts biodiversity at risk -lacks order -global warming -land degradation -need for invention |
| Agriculture (requires more labor than horticulture; intensive and continuous use of land) | Domes. animals: used for manure/cultivating machines Irrigation: horticul. need to wait for rain, agriculturalists extract water from lakes/streams to irrigate crops Terracing: Allows for farming on hills in densely populated areas where land is scarce |
| types of Agriculture & examples | land-intensive: growth of potatoes (plateaus) capital-intensive: dutch flowers machine-intensive: Ukrainian wheat farming |
| Horticulture vs. Agriculture | Horticulture: -Shifting/Slash and Burn -Use of simple tools and manpower (Extensive) -Dependent on rainy season Agriculture: -Continuous cultivation of land -Use machines and animals for cultivation (Intensive) -Extract water from sources for irri |
| Economy | the consumption of goods and services along with the system of production, distribution, and trade within a society. |
| economic systems | Moral economy: Focuses less on the economic transaction and more on the social exchange and relationships Capitalist System: characterized by private ownership, buying, and selling; valuations based on supply and demand |
| Cultural ecology | Culture is adaptive to diverse environments and is not linear |
| Sustainability | Balancing social, economic, and ecological concerns. Tries to create the most efficient consumption of resources so that future generations will have access to the resources without completely sacrificing social and economic potential. |
| Intensive vs. extensive production systems | Extensive (Horti): Involves a small amount of labor, fertilizing, and capital inputs relative to the area of land Intensive (Agri): Involves a large amount of labor, fertilizing, and capital inputs relative to the area of land |
| Industrialism (possible 5th Strategy) | -Complex organization and economy -Urban-rural disconnect -Domination of market economics -Impacts on human health and well-being -Tensions in local vs. global -Tension between conservation and development -Stratification and power relations |
| Types of reciprocity | Generalized: Giving without expecting in return, usually between closely related individuals Balanced: Bartering or borrowing and you pay back later; midpoint between Gen. & Neg. Negative: Stealing or cheating someone. A lose/lose situation |
| "The Great Transformation" | Karl Polanyi; the competitive nature of a market economy within the modern state pushes for a structural change in social interaction; thus, structure of basic social order that existed through history is destroyed. (Market economy unravels social fabric) |
| Green Revolution | -after WWII until the 1970’s -marked a leap in research & development of agricultural technology to increase yields -NOT environmentally friendly -Increase inputs of water, pesticides, chemical fertilizers & GMOs -promoted in devel. countries |
| Green Revolution (pros and cons) | PROS -Eliminated hunger by improving seeds and yields -Reduced prices CONS -Excessive consumption in N. hemisphere -Issues with labor -Increased vulnerability due to establishment of a monoculture crop -harmfull to environment -Undermined local kn |
| Alternative development paradigms (Consultative Group On International Agriculture) | -1970s -response to criticisms of GR methods & pressures -is an alliance of agricultural research organizations dedicated to reducing poverty, increasing food security, improving health and nutrition, and better sustainable management of resources |
| Politics | -the process within a community that determines: How decisions are made How rules for group behavior are established How competition over leadership is regulated How effects of disputes are minimized (conflict resolution) |
| Sociopolitical Organization | Authority (Figures), Power (Institutions), Ideology, and Control (Social institutions and norms) |
| Political Systems | -Conceptual tool to contrast the diverse forms of political organization -continuum (not discrete categories) -Bands, Tribes, Chiefdoms, States |
| Band: Foragers | EXAMPLE: Ju/’hoansi (Bushmen) -No formal leaders -Leadership is achieved -Egalitarian: All members are equal in worth and social status -Gender division of labor -Usually mobile with low population density |
| Tribe: Horticulturalists & Pastoralists | EXAMPLE: Kawelka, New Guinea -Low social stratification (egalitarian) -Leaders are called Big Men (achieved status with low authority) -Semi-sedentary -Higher population density than band |
| Chiefdom: Agriculturalists and Pastoralists | EXAMPLE: Natchez (18th Century LA) -Ascribed leadership, Central authority -Social stratification -Redistributive economy (Potlatching) -Agriculture and specialization (economic) -Military power -dif. ways to res. -Ideological power backed by super |
| States: Agriculturalists; large scale with specialized production | EXAMPLE: Aztec Empire (13-16 Cent.) Formal government Complex social stratification (ascribed and achieved) High economic, military & ideological power Institutional law, government, & economy -Pop. control -Judiciary -enforcement mechanisms -fisc |
| Definition of State | -autonomous political unit encompassing many communities, central gvmt, taxes, laws FIRST STATES: Old World: Mesopotamia & Indus Valley New World: America & Canada |
| Village head | Local tribal leader with limited authority (always a man) |
| Big man | In South Pacific- a generous village entrepreneur with multi-village support (almost always male) |
| Leveling mechanisms (ex. insulting the meat) | In cultural anth., a practice that ensures social equality, by shaming/humbling members of a group that attempt to put themselves above other members. ex-Insulting the best restaurant in town to keep them humble -foundation of all egalitarian societies |
| Religion | a social institution that includes beliefs & rituals-supernatural beings, powers, forces; peoples’ perspec. & knowledge of relationship between spiritual & material world; creates solidarity between members & surpasses cultural, lang. & social boundaries |
| Syncretisms | Cultural mixes, especially from religious blends, emerging from acculturation (cargo cults) |
| Ritual | Formal, representative, stereotyped behavior; based on a liturgical order. Performed at sacred places or set times |
| Animism | the belief in souls, doubles, spiritual beings. |
| Polytheism and monotheism | Polytheism: belief that multiple gods control nature Monotheism: Worship of a single supreme being |
| Cosmology | A way of explaining the history and evolution of the cosmos based on religious mythology |
| Mana | Impersonal, sacred force existing in the universe (originating belief) in Melanesia and Polynesia similar to our notion of “luck” ex: attributing success to a rock (or any other item) or believing an item would bring you luck and good fortune |
| Taboo | Sacred and forbidden; prohibition backed by supernatural sanctions ex: incest related blood |
| functions of religion | Rites of passage: associated with the transition from one stage of life to another Provides solace: serves emotional needs by dispelling doubt through faith and ritual |
| Totems | Animals, plants, or geographic features used to represent a group such as a family, lineage, or clan |
| Witchcraft | Use of supernatural/magical skills In Central Africa it’s known as mangu, an invisible force of misfortune that can be inherited. |
| examples of Witchcraft | -Benge: an oracle performed by village head to determine adultery cases or why a hunt failed (thought to be caused by mangu); feeding a chicken poison to find truth -A person can be a witch without knowing it and must sincerely spit water as an apology |
| kinship | Relationship within a group that share a genealogical origin based on biological, historical or cultural decent. It is an emic (insider’s perspective) view of social rules, laws, and institutions. |
| 3 types of kinship systems | Lineal, Bifurcate merging, Generational |
| Lineal Kinship System | Descent traced through mother or father. Distinguishes between mother’s and father’s sides as well as generations (ie. mother, aunt, uncle, cousin) |
| Bifurcate Kinship System | Distinguishes between mother’s and father’s side and generations but not non-immediate family. Merges same sex siblings of each parent (ie. mother and aunt are the same term making brother and male cousin the same term) |
| Generational Kinship System | Uses the same terms for parents and their siblings lumping together the parental generation (mother, father, aunt, uncle) Does not distinguish between mother’s and father’s sides. |
| Example of Kinship Systems | Uncle (Father’s brother) Lineal -Father’s brother Bifurcated -Father (distinguished as father’s side); different word for mother’s brother and father’s sister Generational -Father (no side distinguished) |
| Apical ancestors | For a clan this is a common ancestor that may be real or a fictionalized totem from which all the members originate from (this ancestor is known as the apex) |
| Privileges of clan membership | Food: labor, consumption, distribution Power: Deference, allegiances; strata Ritual: roles, rites of passage Rules, punishment ex: bloodwealth- if a man kills another man, first man owes second man's family cattle Marriage partners, inherit |
| Types of marriage alliances (endogamy, exogamy) | Endogamy: Marriage of people in the same group Exogamy: Marriage outside of one’s group |
| Polygamy | Marriage including more than two partners |
| polygyny | A man has more than one wife at the same time |
| polyandry | A woman has more than one husband at one time |
| Postmarital residence | In some societies man has many wives each with her own house (patrilineal, patrilocal, and polygamist) In others women could acquire wealth and wives but maintained femininity |
| Patrilocality | Couple resides in husband’s community |
| Matrilocality | Couple resides in wife’s community |
| Matrifocal | Mother centered household with not resident father/husband |
| Why study colonialism/ postcolonial studies? | -Colonialism is a major force of cultural change -An explanation for economic disparity, power differentials, conflict and human rights issues |
| World systems theory | Idea that a discernible social system based on wealth and power differentials should transcend individual countries (focus on the world as a whole when analyzing social interactions) |
| World Systems Theory (core, semi-periphery, periphery) | Core: Dominant position; nation with advanced systems of production (USA) Semi-periphery: Position intermediate between core and periphery (Brazil) Periphery: Weakest structural and economic position; may have a low degree of industrialization (Nigeria) |
| Imperialism | Policy aimed at seizing and ruling foreign territory and peoples |
| Colonialism | Political, social, economic, and cultural dominance of a territory by a foreign power over time (Colonialism is a variant of imperialism) |
| Types of colonialism | Direct: Settlers of the imperial center run plantation-based export commodities and extractive industries Indirect: Local elites, appointed by imperializing country, act as colonial bureaucrats |
| Types of colonies | Extractive and Productive: extract raw materials from Earth and produce valuable tools etc. from them. Settled Colonies Set up schools, banks, infrastructures |
| Reasons for colonialism (economic, political, ideological) | Economic: Raw materials, raw markets, trade and commerce Political: Competition among imperializing powers for wealth and territory Ideological: Civilization is synonymous with progress and the “white man’s burden” |
| “White Man’s Burden” | obligation of whites to encourage cultural develop. in countries w/ diff. & primitive cultural backgrounds so they can take their place in society & global economy; justified colonialism as noble enterprise |
| Phase 1 of Colonialism | (1492-1825): Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands Drivers: Mercantilism and Enrich royalty Goals: Exploration and trade of exotic goods and slaves Colonies: America, Asia, and India |
| Phase 2 of Colonialism | (1825-1960): England, France, and Germany Drivers: More territory, resources, labor, and capitalism Goals: New markets and resources to satisfy expanding global capitalism Colonies: Africa and Asia |
| Consequences of colonialism | -Increased economic disparity and famine -Socio-psychological deterioration -Loss of culture, language and political autonomy -Mass poverty -Dependency cycle resulting in underdevelopment -Resource depletion for the benefit of colonizing entities |
| Example of Colonialism | British Raj in India Indigo=cash crop in Indian colonies & took priority over food production In the late 1800s monsoon rain failure resulted in country wide famine where 30 mil Indians died of starvation ex: famine as a result of a social institution |
| Purported benefits of colonialism | Social advances of culture, education and religion Law and order System of private property Trade, cash crops, industry and technology Infrastructure (social, cultural and political) |
| Interventionist philosophy of colonialism | Ideological justification for outsiders to guide or rule native groups (colonialists, missionaries, governments, and development planners) |
| Legacy of colonialism: Sugar & Neoliberalism | -Europeans built plantations in Caribbean -High demand for labor from slave trade -After abolishment of slavery migrant workers were marginalized & poorly treated -Now human rights organizations monitor the treatment of migrant workers in company housi |
| Neocolonialism | Indirect control over an area through geopolitics, aid, international trade agreements, and NGOs |
| Neoliberalism | Governments shouldn’t regulate private enterprise; free-market forces should rule. The government should stay out of its nation’s economic affairs (no commerce regulations, manufacturing restrictions, or tariffs) |
| Structural Adjustment (World Bank, IMF) | These companies are imposing neoliberal policies which entail open (tariff/barrier-free) international trade & investment Profits are sought through lowering costs, by improving productivity, laying off workers, or seeking workers who accept lower wages |
| Modernist ideology | History is racing toward a technological utopia while the perceived primitive third world is in arrested development |
| Case of the Sugar industry | High demand for labor fueled slave trade Sugar in Dominican Republic- Bateyes(company housing) are in very poor condition in Dominican Republic sugar plantations |
| Identity Politics | Identifying oneself as belonging to a particular cultural group in order to attain political power despite stratification of said group |
| Applied Anthropology | Study and understand patterns in behavior to figure out social organization, thinking and knowledge systems. study of humanity study of the past study of the present |
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