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GEOG 3180 - Test 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Ingredients for winter storm | Cold air -Below-freezing temperatures in the clouds & on the ground Moisture - Air blowing across bodies of water provides ample moisture Lift - A mechanism to raise the moist air to form clouds |
| Precipitation | Rain, snow, sleet, freezing rain all starts as snow |
| Freezing Rain | above 32 in air but ground is at or below 32 Most Dangerous It melts in the air and refreezes when it hits the ground Ice where it hits |
| Sleet | part of the air is above 32 but lower air and ground is or below 32 Why it's squishy ice - trying to become snow Melts in the air and air near ground is 32 or below Freezing before ground |
| Types of Winter Storms | Lake Effect Snow Snow Squall (Whiteout) Blizzards Nor’easter Ice Storm |
| Lake Effect Snow | Steps - Cold arctic air forced across a large lake - Crosses warmer air that is rising (from the lake) Snows very rapidly Late fall/ early winter Great Lakes and Salt Lake Heart-Attack Snow |
| Heart-Attack Snow | Makes it dangerous for people because of the stress of shoveling |
| Snow Squall (Whiteout) | Strong, gusty winds Potential significant snow accumulation Brief, but intense snow showers Localized in time/location - because it is a linear line Common in Great Lakes Pileups on highways |
| Blizzards | Severe snowstorm with STRONG WINDS causing blowing snow & low visible |
| Blizzards Classifications | > 35 mph winds Blowing winds < 500 feet visibility < 3 hrs. duration |
| Nor’easter | Northeast Winter Storm / Mid-latitude Cyclone Winds covering coastal areas are typically from NE Maximum intensity in Megalopolis/I-95 Corridor Development: Gulf-Stream low-pressure winds system Arctic high-pressure system |
| Ice Storm | Produced by sleet and freezing rain Accumulation of at least 0.25-inch of ice on exposed surfaces |
| Ice Storm Major Impacts | Produce power outages in freezing temperatures Toppled trees, utility poles & communication towers Black Ice (roads, bridges, & overpasses) |
| Winter Weather Fatalities | Car accidents - 63% Exposure - 13% Exhaustion & Overexertion - 24% |
| Cold-Related Health Risks | Hypothermia & frost Bite |
| Hypothermia | Lowing of core body temperature |
| Hypothermia Stages | Early stage - uncontrollable shivering Mid Stage - reduced muscle coordination, slurred speech, stumbling walk Late Stage - reduced mental awareness, incoherent speech, drowsiness, irrational or un-cooperative behavior -get nude |
| Wind Chill Chart | The amount of wind can make it feel colder than the longer it is Wind chill warning, watch, advisory |
| Blizzard of 1888 (Great White Hurricane) | Multiple days 80 mph winds DC to Maine Flooding when the snow melted Sank > 200 ships Led to underground subway and power lines |
| 1993 “Storm of the Century” | Affected 26 states on the eastern seaboard CAT 3 Hurricane Record airport closing Ton of tornadoes in south Forecasted well but it was severe and it was hard to prepare for |
| Winter Weather Mitigation | Stay inside! Stay OFF the roads! Winter Survival Kit |
| Winter Survival Kit | Warm blankets; sleeping bag flashlight/batteries Waterproof matches Water Nonperishable/high calorie food Plastic bags First aid kit Ice scraper Cat litter Shovel Rope |
| Winter Weather Advisory | Winter weather conditions are expected to cause significant inconveniences & may be hazardous. If caution is exercised, these situations should not become life-threatening. The greatest threat is often to motorists. Be aware! |
| Winter Storm Watch | Severe winter conditions, such as heavy snow and/or ice, are possible w/i the next day or two. Prepare now! |
| Winter Storm Warning | Severe winter conditions have begun or are about to begin in your area. Stay indoors! |
| Blizzard Warning | Snow & strong winds will combine to produce a blinding snow (near zero visibility), deep drifts, & life-threatening wind chill. Seek refuge immediately! |
| Frost/freeze warning | Refers to vegetation and pets |
| Frost Advisory | Areas of frost are expected or occurring, posing threat to sensitive vegetation. Be Aware! |
| Freeze Watch | Potential for significant, widespread freezing temperatures within 24-36 hours. Be Prepared! |
| Freeze Warning | Temperatures are forecasted to go below 32 degrees F for a long period of time, possibly killing some types of commercial crops and residential plants. Take Action! |
| Hard Freeze Warning | Temperatures are expected to drop below 28 degrees F for an extended period of time, killing most types of commercial crops and residential plants. Take Action! |
| Drought | moisture deficit over long periods of time - different for each area |
| Types of Droughts | Meteorological, Agricultural, Hydrological, Socioeconomic Worse as you go to the right |
| Meteorological | Measurable below-normal precipitation |
| Agricultural | Soil moisture insufficient for crops/pastures -needs meteorological |
| Hydrological | Surface & subsurface water supplies are blow - aquifers & groundwater lower |
| Socioeconomic | Shortages impact society (people, businesses & activities that rely on precipitation) |
| Drought Severity Impacts Hierachy | Weather → food → ecosystem/water supply → affects people Longer it goes from meteorological → Socioeconomic |
| Drought Severity | Moisture Duration -How many types of drought sections it goes into Size of the affected area -Small or large area |
| Drought impacts | Crops most affected Decreased forest productivity Increased fire hazard Damage to wildlife & fish habitat Higher mortality rates for livestock/wildlife Reduces agribusiness Grocery workers, truck drivers Human Displacement Cost for relief programs |
| Drought Hazards | Flash floods Landslides Debris flows Heat waves Wildlires Dust storm |
| Dust Storm | Conditions -Loose surface material -Frontal system with winds capable of lifting & transporting material Drought conditions can increase the availability of loose material Drought conditions are not necessarily for dust storms |
| Drought Severity Classification | D0-D4 5 criteria by national weather system to characterize |
| 1930s Dust Bowl | Sequence of several droughts in succession Loose soil & wind to carry topsoil Natural conditions coupled with:E xtensive farming, Poor land management, Aftermath Great Depression Leave OK & Great Plains to California Led to government relief efforts |
| 1930s Dust Bowl Lesson Learned | Reservoirs built/enlarged New insurance & aid programs emerge New farming techniques:Crop rotation, Contoured row crops, Tillage practices - turn the soil |
| Sahel Droughts | Semi-arid belt of land (transition zone from the Sahara Desert and jungle) Severe drought & food shortage late 60s -80s |
| Sahel Droughts Factors | Little/intermittent rainfall (4-8 inches/yr) -The area acted like desert Dependent on northward monsoons Land use (overgrazing, deforestation) Poor economy |
| Sahel Drought Impacts | Death of people and livestock Population migration Political upheaval Desertification Dependent on food aid |
| Sahel Lessons Learned | - no mono-cropping -no deforestration & overgrazing - Aid does not fix problem -awareness & education programs |
| Drought Mitigation | Monitor water supply and use Reducing indoor water use Drought-torrent landscape design & improved irrigation techniques Increase recycling & reuse of water The Great Green Wall - trying to reforest the Sahel |
| Heatwave | An extended period of above-normal temperatures No absolute quantification of the degree of temperature anomalies (duration, magnitude) Deadliest form of weather |
| Heatwave Meteorological Influences | Air temp above body temperature = heat gain, Humidity - limits cooling from sweat, Air motion - facilitates convective heat loss through sweat evaporation, Solar radiant heat energy (shade) - Increase heat |
| Heatwave Health Effects | Heat Cramps, Heat syndrome, Heat exhaustion, Heatstroke |
| Heat Cramps | Muscular pain & spasms Too much exertion in heat/first sign of health issues |
| Heat syndrome | Sudden, short loss of consious |
| Heat exhaustion | Loss of bodily fluids, blood flows to skin rather than vital organs Mild shock |
| Heatstroke | Body to prevent the rise in core temp Prolonged loss of consciousness Confusion, Convulsion Classification - long time out, old people Exertional - out and about - young people |
| Heat Index | Measures of how hot it feels when relative humidity is factored in w/ actual air temp Temp is insufficient to describe the stress place on homeostasis in hot Generally reduce to r.ship b/t temp & hum. (skin temp) How hot your body feels & on your body |
| Forecast & warning - done by NWS for heat wave | Heat advisory Heat Watch Heat Warning |
| Heat Wave Hazard | Enormous death toll Drought Forest fires Climate concerns |
| Vulnerability of Heatwave | Age, poverty, urban populations, being outdoors, physical characteristics, lack of knowledge or experince |
| 2003 European Heat Wave | France hit hardest August 2003 - warmest on record in the northern hemisphere |
| 1995 Heat Wave | Heat island effect Most vulnerable populations - the elderly, male, low-income, black community |
| 1995 Heat Wave - why high mortality? | No warning until July 15 Power failures - more A/C put on Opening hydrants caused water pressure to drop Lack of resources (ambulances, hospital beds) Lack of social network - no English-speaking areas |
| Chicago Heat Response Plan | NWS heat watch/warning Senior well-being task force Water/building inspections increased Automated reverse 911 systems |
| Wildfire | Combustion, marked by flames or intense heat, in a natural setting, often lightening or human activities (USGS) |
| Ignition Sources for Wildfires | Natural:Spontaneous combustion (oxidation), Sparks from rock fall,Lightening strikes (5-10% of all fires),Volcanic action Human: Arson (30% of all fires, Carelessness - not putting out fires, Hunting |
| Wildfire Process - Ingredients | Ingredients: Oxygen, Heat, Fuel Fire Tetrahedron:Oxygen, heat, fuel, chemical chain reaction (combustion) Mediterranean climate naturally has fires |
| Wildfire Life Cycle | Pre-Ignition Stage Combustion (Burning Stage) Extinction (burnout stage) |
| Pre-Ignition Stage | Preheating - fuel loss water content or other volatile compounds Pyrolysis - organic fuels (wood) release gasses when exposed to high temps - carbon residues are left behind |
| Combustion (Burning Stage) | The fuel sling on the first floor is ignited Flaming combustion (early stage) glowing/smoldering combustion (decomp through pyrolysis) Convection |
| Extinction (burnout stage) | Burning and smoldering are stopped Usually the result of loss of fire |
| Types of forest Fire | Ground, Surface, Crown Fires |
| Ground Fire | Burn within organic material on the forest floor and into the underlying soil Produces a smoldering effect (wind not a factor) Slow spreading Caused by Spontaneous combustion (oxidation) |
| Surface Fire | Burn litter & vegetative matter on the forest floor such as underbrush Spread within speed (6 mph) Usually does not affect trees Can initiate crown fires in some cases |
| Crown Fires | Movement of fire through crowns of trees and shrubs Does not move at a steady rate - surges The function of tree density Able to produce tree density (more density how bad Caused by lightning or arson |
| Firestorm | Mass fire (running crown fire; area fire) Rapid speed Same as a crown, but bigger and most destructible Violent convection caused by a large, continuous area of intense fire |
| Conditions of Occurrence | Available Fuel Load: (tons per acre), Topography, Meteorological conditions |
| Available Fuel Load: (tons per acre) | Amount of possible combustion material - Types of vegetation, the chemical makeup of vegetation, moisture of the vegetation, amount of litter and debris |
| Topography | Travel faster upslope South-facing slopes are drier Lighter elevations are drier |
| Meteorological conditions for Wildfire | Amount of rain -drought Temperature - high heat (ignition temperature) Relative humidity - low Wind direction |
| Wind direction | Parrell to fire/embers fly perpendicular to fire spread fire wider Opposite to fire - slows progression |
| Wildlife/Urban Interface | Classical Interface, Mixed Interface, Occulated Interface |
| Mixed Interface | less dense development scattered throughout the wildlife |
| Occulated Interface | development area is interspersed with patches of wildlife vegetation or wildlife vegetation has become surrounded by urban development |
| Classical Interface | urban development is immediately adjacent to wildlife vegetation |
| Wildfire Impact | Land Water polluctions Air Biodiversity Economy Human structures |
| Wildfire Impact Land | Destruction of forests Loss of crops Loss of grazing land |
| Wildfire Impact Air | Pollution due to smoke/haze Loss of visibility Generation of green hose gasses |
| Wildfire Impact Biodiversity | Reduction of sunlight Loss of endangered species Loss of medicinal plants |
| Wildfire Impact Economy | Loss of forest products Loss of revenue Flight cancellation Loss of tourism revenue Loss of human structures |
| Wildfire Impact Human structure | Respiratory diseases Loss of life |
| Communication & warning for Fires | Wild fire assessment system -Us fire danger rating class maps -Study fires NWS communication/warnings -Fire weather forecast/advisory -Fire weather watch -Red flag warning - no burning stuff |
| Fighting Wildfires | Timely & accurate information Dispatching & coordination by BIFC - In charge Smoke jumpers Areal releases of fire-retardant chemicals Fire breaks - flat area between fuel breaks Fuel breaks - dug outs Back-fire - control fire |
| Benefits to Wildfires | Increase nutrient content in soil Reduces insect infestation on trees Reduces the amount of fuel on the surface Causes certain trees/plants to propagate through the releasing of seeds Small fires (controlled or prescribed burns) reduce large fires |
| 1871 Great Peshtigo Firestorm | Firestorm Most deaths by wildfire Cause: human carelessness Risk conditions:Prolonged drought,Slash and burn farming,Railroad construction, & Lumber industry Response Issues: Delay - resources sent to Chicago |
| 1988 Yellowstone Fire | Largest fire fight effort in US history ⅓ of burned Cause: natural (lightening strike) & human (carelessness Post event change park management & attitudes fire Pre-1950 extinguish every fire Suppressing fire reduces variety of plant & animal spec. |
| 2016 Southerneatern US Wildfires | Multiple states, happen in North Carolina Caused by it being in driest part of year |
| 2017 California | North-Worse than south, more urban area Highlighted lack of coordinated response, evacuation plans & education Improvements in building & fire codes for developments in Wildlands/urban interface Need for more aggressive vegetation & management programs |
| Fires occurance ... (more common or not) | Not more common, just happening more urban areas |
| Mitigation Measures for Fire | Household fire management - Screen on chimney, Remove near trees, Keep limbs/leaves off house Community fire management - Fire frightening, prescribed burn Monitoring & detection - Hot spot detection (remote sensing), Drones, aircraft, weather stations |
| Documentary - Fukushima | Trauma - Grief Displacement → pod homes Bad evacuation plan Kids resilient - not playing victim Could not play much time outside Radiation monitors around neck Normality of clean up - big machine Wearing hat |
| Technical Hazards | Man-made accidents triggered by design failure or human mismanagement rather than natural process More unfamiliar than natural hazards Environmental may have a role (trigger events; natural pathways) |
| Types of Technical hazards | Transportation accidents, Industrial Failures, Unsafe facilitates, Hazardous materials |
| Transportation accidents | aviation, auto, rail, & ship accidents |
| Industrial Failures | explosions & fires, the release of toxic or radioactive material |
| Unsafe facilitates | structural collapse, dam failure, fire |
| Hazardous materials | storage, transportation, spills, misuse of materials |
| Exxon Valdez Oil Spill (1989) | Prince William Sound, Alaska Hundred of thousands of species killed Started conversation about technical hazards Remote location made it hard to clean up |
| Deepwater Horizon oil spill (2010) | Lasted for months, near hurricane season Biggest oil spill and impact Explosion on drilling ring Multi -faceted disaster Affected shoreline TX-FL Impacted wildlife, fishing industry, oil industry, tourism, ocean floor |
| Ganiteville, Sc Chlorine Release (2005) | 4 am, rail switch out of position - train accident -Being inside asleep helped people Cl release atmosphere Lesson learned: Emergency planning: Told them to exacuate 1 miles, No wind blow not factored, Should have told stay in Emergency reponce |
| Radiation Pathways & Nuclear fallout | Skin, digest, drink, air Nuclear events are not a local events |
| INES Levels (International Nuclear Event Scale) | Way to measure nuclear disaster 1-3 incidents 4-7 accidents Based on the amount of radiation |
| 1979 Three Milke Island | Partial reactor meltdown Near Harrisburg, PE Fuel rods began to liquify, but did not breach containment; hydrogen explosion Thousands evacuated = INES 5 Cleanup efforts took more than a decade US Public opposes nuclear power in their communities |
| Chernobyl, USSR (1986) | Hundreds of thousands evacuated, = INES 7 100x more radiation then atomics Operator error AND design flaw 350k dispaced/resettled |
| Chernobyl, USSR (1986) Human Health Impacts | Radioactivity impact - difficult to trace in population 50 immediate fatalities Estimates of mortality are controversial. Thyroid cancer up (children resilient) Economic & Psychological efforts |
| Chernobyl, USSR (1986) Lessons Learned | International cooperation for nuclear safety regulations Containmentation does not respect political boundaries Clear communication & information spread is crucial Evacuation was slow &messages ambiguous May have contributed to the unraveling of USSR |
| Impacts of technological hazards | Direct Loss of life Health issues: injury. Chronic disease, disability Indirect Stigmatization Ennvironmnta; degradation & clean up Groundwater infiltration Litigation Loss of land Economic |
| Na-Tech - Fukushima nuclear events | Tohuku Japan EQ & Tsunami PTWC issues watch after EQ People evacuate 9.0 |
| Fukushima Nuclear disaster | 3 out of 6 reactors experience full meltdowns Restrict 20 km radius around plant Similiar to Chernobyl: Ineffective emergency response Initial downplaying of impact Inadequate communication & info sharing |
| Fukushima Impacts | Huge price tag Immediate danger cleared in disaster zone, but clean-up still ongoing: Rubble and fuel pools removal |
| Fukisma v chernolbyl | Fukisma- large pay, large population, trade effected worse |
| Types of Complex Humanitarian Hazards | Climate change sea-level rise Biodiversity loss - Rainforest Famine Pandemic ELE |
| Epidemic | An outbreak of disease that spreads quickly & affects many individuals in a particular region or country |
| Pandemic | An epidemic that has spread over several countries or continents, usually affecting a large number of people Are Biological hazard 1918 Influenza Pandemic 2009 H1N1 Pandemic 2019/2020 COVID-19 Pandemic |
| Biological Hazard | an agent of biological origin that has the capacity to produce deleterious effects on humans (microorganisms, toxins and allergens derived from those organisms; and allergens and toxins derived from higher plants and animals) - CDC |
| Biological Hazard Source | ▪ bacteria ▪ viruses ▪ animals (birds, insects, etc.) ▪ plants ▪ humans |
| 2019-2020 COVID-19 | ▪ November 17, 2019 – first confirmed case in Wuhan, China ▪ March 11, 2020 – WHO declares global pandemic ▪ Complex global phenomenon that is reshaping how we work, learn, play, and engage with each other |
| Climate Change | change in climate over long period of time. EPA vs NOAA - NOAA- blames humans and nature |
| Weather | short-term atmospheric conditions (hourly to weekly) ▪ Dynamic processes |
| Climate | – long-term average weather conditions (seasonal to millennial) ▪ Typical (seasonal norms) Measured by annual rain and temperature |
| Why is Climate Changing? | Natural variability & Anthropogenic Influence Need both to understand both to explain climate change |
| Natural variability of climate change | Milankovitch cycles -Changes in the revolution around the sun over millions of years -Tilt of earth changes Short-term changes in solar output Volcanic eruptions Inter- annual & inter-decadal phenomena (El Nino, North Atlantic Oscillation, etc.) |
| Anthropogenic Influence of climate change | Loading the atmosphere with greenhouse gasses Changes in land use/ land cover -Trees removed can not absorb CO2 -Asphalt raises temp 1990 - present = warmest period in temperature record (NOAA) Global population |
| How do we study climate? | Instrumental record, Historical Record, Paleo-proxy record |
| Instrumental record | Measurements of temperature made directly since 1960 CO2 measurements since 1960 Solar energy is a form of past decades |
| Historical Record | Includes written recollections (newspaper, journals, captain’s log) |
| Paleo-proxy record | Proxy data can be correlated with climate Provide best evidence that predates historical & instrumental records |
| How to measure climate change - proxy data? | Tree rings, Sediments, Ice cores, Pollen, & Coral |
| Tree rings | ▪ Dendroclimatology = 10,000 yr+ data |
| Sediments | Recovered by drilling into ocean or lake beds |
| Ice cores | Composition of water & past atmospheric gases are studied ▪ Can provide a time record of up to 800,000 yrs. |
| Pollen | ▪ Types of pollen reflect climate ▪ Can be preserved in sedimentary layers to form chronology |
| Coral | Calcium carbonate contains isotopes of oxygen & trace metals - analyzed for temperature |
| Climate Change History | Scale matters when you look |
| Greenhouse gasses - climate change | Carbon dioxide, methane (most), nitrous oxide |
| IPCC | multinational scientific body to provide information to decision makers on climate change Established by UNEP & WMO Earth warming, less snow and ice/melt, increase sea level, ocean more acidotic |
| Different places affected ... | differently - placebased disaster Alaska Warming twice the rate of US |
| Climate Change Impacts | ▪ Increases in global averages of air & surface temps ▪ Changes in precipitation patterns ▪ Northward moving hardiness zones ▪ Northward moving animals ▪ Widespread melting of snow & ice ▪ Rising sea-levels ▪ Coral bleaching ▪ Thawing permafrost |
| More affluent produce the most but is the ... | Least effected China, US, India |
| Impacts of climate change if it continues | Tropical cyclones increase in frequency and intensity Ice reduction Perception increases in high latitudes (the poles) and less in tropics Sea level rise Increasing temperatures; especially high latitude terrestrial (the poles) |
| Atlantic basin is becoming more ... | active and more near in the last couple months of the season (Oct & Nov) - very intense |
| Coral reef bleaching | In tropics - fish habitats moving |
| SDG - UN 17 Goals - 13 Climate change | Place base issue Look at Natural and Human impacts Individual & local goals/mitigation (changes need be made) based on the place base issue Most deaths in the tropics - low latitudes, in poorer area, in major cities |
| Most wildfires in ... | west and south |
| Convection in Combustion (Burning Stage) | Convection – tremendous heat produced which becomes less dense than air around it & begins to rise – fire draws in air from all directions |
| Preheating | fuel loses water content or other volatile compounds |
| Pyrolysis | organic fuels (wood) release gasses when exposed to high temps – carbon residue is left behind |
| Wildland Fire Assessment System | US Fire Danger Rating Class maps shows who is danger, but can not give advisories, watches, or warnings |
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Laura227
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