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comprehensive final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| T or F: extrusive igneous rocks have larger grains (courser texture than intrusive )plutonic) igneous rocks | false |
| T or F: mafic igneous rocks are dark-colored and silica-poor | true |
| T or F: aphanitic igneous rocks have easily visible mineral grains | false |
| what is an igneous texture with 2 distinct sizes of mineral grains | porphyritic |
| T or F: basalt conains relatively abundant grains of quarts | false |
| T or F: limestones are classified as clastic sedimentary rocks | false |
| T or F: breccias contain angular, pebble-sized sedimentary grains in a finer-grained matrix (background) | true |
| T or F: quartz is a common component of the gravel/sand/silt/clay families because of its durability and resistance to physical and chemical breakdown | true |
| T or F: sedimentary rocks described as "laminated" have no layering | false |
| T or F: a quartz sandstone is an example of a mature sedimentary texture | false |
| what is it called when light is reflected from the surface of a mineral? | luster |
| T or F: the term "hardness" refers to the resistance of a mineral to scratching | True |
| samples of minerals with a high specific gravity are considered unusually...? | dense |
| minerals that break into cubic shapes have how many directions of cleavage? | three |
| T or F: after collection of data, the first formal step in using the scientific method is to develop a hypothesis | true |
| T or F: the idea of uniformitarianism implies that the geological processes operating on earth today have always worked at the same rates that we observe today | false |
| scientists think that our sun originally formed by the collaps of a nebula of gasses and what? | dust |
| when the melting point of the early earth was reached, what was thought to have been pulled inward by gravity to form most of the earth's core? | iron |
| oceanic crust on the earth is? | thinner and more dense than continental crust |
| T or F: clastic sedimentary rocks are the result of evaporation of water leaving behind dissolved minerals | false |
| metamorphic rocks originate from (are formed by the effects of) what? | intense heat and/or pressure |
| T or F: alfred wegener provided a good mechanism for WHAT moved continents? | false |
| continental rift zones are good examples of what? | divergent plate boundaries |
| what will form at places where continental crust is in collision with oceanic crust? | a subduction zone |
| T or F: mafic igneous rocks are light-colored and silica-rich | false |
| T or F: intrusive igneous rocks have larger grains than extrusive igneous rocks | true |
| T or F: granites are phaneritic textured felsic rocks | true |
| T or F: the presence of small amounts of water in rocks lowers their melting temperatures | true |
| what is the process called when the composition of a magma is changed by the addition of pieces of country rock as they fall into the magma chamber and melt? | magmatic differentiation |
| what is the power behind the large-scale volcanic eruptions in the area of yellowstone national park? | a mantle plume |
| T or F: very large pyroclastic volcanic eruptions may cause global climatic warming spikes in temperatures | false |
| what composition are the seafloor rocks at mid-ocean ridges made of? | basalt |
| T or F: physical (mechanical) weathering is best described as rock decomposition | false |
| how old is the approximate age of the earth (determined by scientists) | 4.6 billion years |
| what is the ancient idea that earth was shaped by global calamities that occurred over very short intervals of time? | catastrophism |
| who was the important 18th century scottish geologist and proponent of both the rock cycle concept, and uniformitarianism? | James Hutton |
| what is the lithosphere of the earths composed of? | the crust and outermost mantle |
| what is the asthenosphere part of? | the mantle |
| when compared to oceanic crust, continental crust is generally what? | lighter and more buoyant |
| which part of the earth's interior is liquid and composed of mainly iron and nickel? | the outer core |
| heat generated within the earth today is mostly a result of what? | radioactive decay of unstable elements |
| what is the event early in earth's history when the planet is thought to have reached high enough temperatures to melt the earth and allow heavy elements to sink to the center? | the iron catastrophy |
| what is a logical but tentative explanation that fits all observations and data but requires further testing? | a hypothesis |
| scientific deas that are comprehensive in scope, extensively documented, and explain a large number of seemingly unrelatted observations about the natural world are known as what? | paradigms (pangaea by Wegner) |
| what that proposes that the bodies of our solar system formed at essentially the same time from a rotating cloud of gas and dust? | the nebular hypothesis |
| through what process can a metamorphoic rock be recycled by the earth into an igneous rock? | melting |
| what processes form sedimentary rocks? | weathering, erosion, deposition, and lithification |
| what is the result of relatively slow cooling of magma within the earth? | large mineral grains form |
| a rock composed of minerals from the evaporation of bodies of water is classified as what? | chemical sedimentary |
| what rock type is classified by "growing" new minerals under conditions of high temperature and/or pressure? | metamorphic |
| lithospheric (tectonic) plates contain which crusts? | oceanic and continental crust |
| reversals in the earth's magnetic polarity, during which the north magnetic pole becomes the south magnetic pole, are responsible for what? | linear, magnetic patters in the oceanic crust associated with mid-ocean ridges |
| T or F: oceanic crust is young compared to yhe ages of rocks on the continents | true |
| what is the type of tectonic plate margins at mid-ocean ridges? | divergent |
| at which plate boundary is the lithosphere being consumed or destroyed? | subduction zones |
| what is the result when oceanic crust is in collision with oceanic crust? | volcanic island arc |
| what plate margin is it when one tectonic slides or grinds sideways against another tectonic plate? | transform margins |
| which plate boundaries have the smallest magnitude earthquakes? | divergent |
| what is a very long-lived, stable, rising column of magma originating deep in the mantle known as? | mantle plume |
| what is the strongest driving force thought to move tectonic plates? | slab pull at trench settings |
| all atoms of the same element have the same number of what? | protons in the nucleus |
| what do isotopes of a given element contain extra of in their nucleus that cause then to be slightly varied from the standard atomic mass of that element? | neutrons |
| what are positive atoms that are charged particles do to the loss of electrons? | cations |
| what bonds are formed by the attraction of oppositely charged particles? | ionic bonds |
| what is the strongest type of chemical bond, involving sharing of electrons? | covalent bonds |
| what element is the most abundant in the earth's crust? | oxygen |
| the basic building block of silicate minerals, the silica tetrahedra, consist of a central silicon atom surrounded by four atoms of what? | oxygen |
| What do the most durable, highly resistant silicat minerals have in this internal structure? | framework |
| what is the mineral in asbestos tat separates into curly fivers and tends to dissolve in the lungs over time, causing no long-term health problems? | chrysotile |
| mica minerals peel into thin layers because they have one direction of cleavage caused by what? | weak atomic bonds |
| what is hte piezoelectric property of quartz that is imprtant in controlling frequencies in electrical circuits? | applying electricity causes vibrations |
| what group of minerals is hematite an example of? | oxide |
| what group of minerals is gelena an example of? | sulfide |
| when occuring in the form of a precious gemstone, what is the mineral corundum knonwn as? | ruby |
| thin sections of minerals are studied by transmitting what through a sample? | polarized light |
| what is the ingredient of glass that is important in making ovenware very heat resistant? | boron |
| thee sies, shapes, and arrangement of mineral grains in an igneous rock are collectively known as what? | texture |
| magma consists of a mixture of molten liquid, gasses, and what? | mineral crystals |
| what are the first minerals to crystallize from gradual cooling of a mafic magma? | mafic |
| an igneous texture with 2 distinct sizes of mineral grains is what? | porphyritic |
| what type of igneous rock is most likely to exhibit an aphanitic texture? | volcanic |
| which igneous rock has a phaneritic texture and abundant visible quartz grains | granite |
| a very mafic (dark) phaneritic igneous rock that is relatively low in silica is known as what? | gabbro |
| why are rocks at the crust/mantle boundary not a molten liquid? | they are under too much pressure to melt |
| the process of forming igneous rocks of different compositions from a single original magma as early-forming minerals remove material from the melt and change it's "recipe" over time is known as what? | fractional crystallization (magmatic differentiation) |
| what is it called when the composition of a magma is changed by the addition of pieces of country rock as they fall into the magma chamber and melt? | assimilation |
| what is the most active and explosive volcano in the configuous united states? | Mt. St. Helens |
| a volcano that shows evidence of extreme erosion of the original eruptive center is most likely a ____ volcano | extinct |
| what kind of eruptions does mt. rainier have a geologic tendency to have? | pyroclastic |
| what is the driving force for the creation of the hawaiian islands? | a mantle plume |
| local basalt flows typically have distinct, very well-developed _____ at their bases | columns |
| what tpe of volcano is jagged, and has cinder flow top surfaces formed by lava flows further from their source vents? | AA |
| what type of volcano is formed by overlappingn layers of basaltic lava flows? | shield volcanos |
| what unit of the columbia river basalts represents the most volume of lava erupted? | the grande ronde formation |
| what is formed when basaltic lava flows enter bodies of water? | columns |
| what is it called when pyroclasts have been streamlined in flight as liquid lava cools? | bombs |
| a rock formed by the "welded" deposits of generally fine-grained pyroclastic deposits is known as what? | volcanic tuffs |
| when basaltic eruptions enter the ocean water in hawaii, "laze" (locally severe air pollution) is caused mainly by what chemical? | HCL (hydrochloric acid) |
| what is the lava that comes from a reletively quiet volcanic eruption, and has the lowest viscocity? | basaltic |
| the massive eruptions of columbia river basalts 15 million years ago in our region have left behind what? | an extensive flood basalt plateau |
| large rhyolitic eruptions are most likely from what type of volcano? | a lava dome |
| what particles remain in the upper atmosphere the longest, and are responsible for most of the global climatic cooling effects following a large pyroclastic eruption? | aerosols of sulfur |
| what is it called when a plutonic body is over 100 km2 in surface area? | a batholith |
| what igneous rock type is commonly found at mid-ocean hotspots? | basalt |
| igneaous rocks of intermediate composition (andesites and diorites) are most commonly associated with what tectonic setting? | subduction zones |
| T or F: buried soil above the igneous body is common in volcanic sills, but not lava flows | true |
| magmas of granicic composition are most likely formed by partial melting of what? | existing continental crust |
| during the eruptions of mt. vesuvius in A.D. 79, the unfortunate inhabitants of the city of ponpeii were entombed by what? | ash and pumice deposits |
| what is a good general term for describing the processes involved in mechanical weathering? | disintegration |
| what commonly occures when masses of plutonic rocks are exposed at the earths surface and the overlying confining pressure is unloaded? | exfoliation |
| cones of loose rock at the bases of cliffes are known as what? | talus |
| what is caused by ions from minerals in a rock being carried away by the slight charges on water molecules? | dissolution |
| H* and OH* ions from water displace other ions in a mineral's structure during what chemical weathering process important in the weathering of granitic rocks? | hyerolysis |
| grus is most commonly formed by chemical weathering of which type of rock? | granite |
| acid mine drainage problems result from the oxidation of which minerals? | sulfide |
| a distinct, mappable unit of rock which is most comonly a stratigraphic layer is known as what? | a formation |
| karst topography, where weak carbonic acid is responsible for dissolution of exposed bedrock occures in areas underlain by which type of rock? | limestone |
| from top down, an ideal soil profile sequence in our area is what? (5 letter combo) | OAEBC |
| the dark-colored soil zone we typically think of as productive "topsoil" is a combination which horizons? | O and A |
| caliche concentrated in arid soils by periodic rains or water table fluctuations is composed of what rather soft, light-colored mineral? | calcite |
| which soil type is rich in clay minerals and is subject to shrinking and swelling as it loses and gains water content following precipitation? (causing major problems for builders) | vertisol |
| T or F: nutrients in tropical rainforest soils are continually recycled between living and recently dead vegetation before it is leached away | true |
| the size, shape, and arrangement of sedimentary particles are known collectively as what? | the texture |
| collision between particles during the transport of sand and gravel wears smoothh the edges of clasts through the process of what? | rounding |
| a very mature sediment will contain eveidence of a long transport history and what else? | good sorting |
| T or F: glacial ice is considered good sorting for sedimentary deposites? | false |
| turbidites (turbidity current deposits) preserved in the rock record exhibit very good examples of what? | graded bedding |
| T or F: ripples form at lower velocities than dunes when sand moves as bedfroms | True |
| T or F: cross beds with tangential bases are good tools for indicating original "up" directions in clastic rocks such as sandstones? | true |
| T or F: permeability is defined as the ability of fluids to low through spaces in rocks | true |
| what rock is a good example of an extremely immature, dirty sandstone, with abundant clay matrix between the grains? | breccia |
| T or F: meteorite and asteroid impacts generally cause hydrothermal metamorphism | false |
| what is the highest grade (most changed) metamorphic rock? | gneiss |
| T or F: magmatites are defined as metamorphic rocks interlayered with intrusive igneous rocks such as granites | true |
| T or F: early scientists who tried to estimate the age of the earth by looking at sedimentation rates for thick sequences of layered rocks decided that the earth was about 10,000 years in age | false |
| the gelogic premise stating that the oldest rocks are at the bottom of any layered sezuence of strata is known as what? | the principle of superposition |
| T or F: rocks in compressional stress tectonics settings at convergent boundaries generate stronger earthquakes than rocks under tensional stress | true |
| T or F: S-waves dissipate in liquids, because fluids cannot deform and return to their original shapes | true |
| T or F: seismograms are the instruments used to record seismic waves | false |
| T or F: modern measurements of earthquake intensity utilize the richter scale | false |
| what are the most destructive waves produced by earthquakes? | surface waves |
| Turbidites preserved in the rock record exhibit very good examples of what? | graded bedding |
| T or F: asymmetric (current) ripples are a good tool for determining original depositional "up" direction in clastic sedimentary rocks | false |
| mudcracks, symmetric "swash" ripples, graded bedding, and tangential crossbeds are examples of what? | sedimentary structures that are good tools for determining the original depositional "up" direction in clastic sedimentary rocks |
| sediment is typically deposited as distinct layers known as what? | beds |
| what fine grained sedimentary rock is scharacterized by its fissility and is laminated? | shale |
| what is the open spaces between particles in sedimentary rocks known as? | porosity |
| Quartz, calcite, silica, and iron are all examples of what? | typical cement found in sedimentary rocks |
| a good example of an extremely immature, dirty sandstone, with abundant clay matriz between the grains is which type of rock | graywackes |
| what are the most abundant of all sedimentary rocks? | mudrocks |
| poorly sorted sedimentary rocks with rounded, gravel sized clasts ofer 2mm in diameter are what type of rock? | conglomerates |
| flint, chart, and jasper are microcrystalline forms of which rock? | quartz |
| a sedimentary rock of the limestone family composed of the microscopic shells of tiny marine organisms are known as what? | chalk |
| T or F: limestone is a member of the biochemical "family" of rocks | true |
| the best depositional environment for the conversion of plant material to coal occurs where? | swamps |
| where is most of the carbon on planet earth found? | limestones |
| what are the crystalline interior areas of continents known as that are primarily composed of ancient highly deformed metamorphic rocks | shields |
| pressure applied unequally from all directions resulting in changes in shapes of minerals and fossils is known as what type of pressure? | directed pressure |
| when pressure is applied to a rock from all sides equally and has no slope change, what type of pressure is that? | lithostatic pressure |
| skarns are a type of mineral deposit where granitic magmas intrude into what? | limestones |
| many important mineral deposits are commonly the result of what type of metamorphism that involves the circulation of hot water. | hydrothermal metamorphism |
| what type of metamorphism occurs between converging tectonic plates where both temperatures and pressures are extreme? | dynamothermal metamorphism |
| "black smokers" is a term used to describe what? | submarine hot springs |
| what is the original rock known as before affected by metamorphism? | protolith |
| glassy objects that represent melting of terrestrial rocks where hypervelocity impacts from space have occured are known as what? | tektites |
| how was the angle of impact and the altitude of the 1908 Tunguska blast in Siberia determined? | the pattern of downed timber |
| what is the most likely protolith for marble? | limestone |
| where is the proposed site of impact that may have wiped out the dinosaurs? | the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico |
| an unusual concentration of what element in rocks at the Mesozoic/Cenozoic boundary may be evidence of a major extinction-causing extraterrestrial impact event? | iridium |
| a metamorphic rock which had a parent rock of pure quartz sandstone would be what? | quartzite |
| what is the lowest grade (least changed) metamorphic rock? | slate |
| which foliated metamorphic rock in which the mica minerals are just coarse enough to impart a visible "satiny sheen" or luster? | phyllite |
| "mixed rocks" formed when granitic intrusions penetrate metamorphic rocks are known as what? | migmatites |
| a rather coarse grained foliated metamorphic rock characterized by visible mica grains and commonly containing garnets is what? | schist |
| what are metamorphic rocks called that have been pulverized by tectonic forces deep in the crust and then "re-welded" into a smooth, very hard rock with a definite strain fabric? | mylonites |
| what is the correct order of increasing metamorphic intensity? | slate-phyllite-schist-kneiss |
| what is hte correct order of decreasing metamorphic intensity? | gneiss-schist-phyllite-slate |
| early scientists who tried to estimate the age of the earth by looking at sedimentation rates for thick sequences of layered rocks decided that the earth was about how old? | 50,000 yrs |
| the oldest rocks should be present at the bottom of any undistured sequence of sedimentary rocks, according to which principle? | the principle of superposition |
| which principal states that pieces of rock present within other rock units are always older than the rocks which contain them? | the principle of inclusions |
| animals and plants on earth have changed in a definate order through time according to which principal? | the principal of fossil succession |
| pieces of country rock that have teen incorporated into igneous plutons during intrusions of magma at depth are known as what? | xenoliths |
| the most obvious type of unconformity in rock outcrops is what? | angular unconformities |
| an erosional surface representing missing time in the rock record between underlying igneous or metamorphic rocks and overlyingn layered rocks are called what? | noncomformaties |
| T or F: hard parts is a great characteristic of an index fossil | true |
| which type of rocks (igneous, met, sed, etc) provide the most reliable ages from radiometric dating techniques? | igneous |
| alpha decay of radioactive isotopes involve what emission from the nucleus? | 2 protons |
| during beta decay of radioactive isotopes, the atomic number of the original element will do what? | increase by one |
| radiocarbon dating works best on what? | organic remains |
| the oldest rocks on earth to be collected and dated by scientists are approximately how old? | 4 billion years |
| the force applied to a rock per unit area is known as what? | stress |
| what is the scale used for detecting the threat of an asteroid impact? | torino scale |
| when magnesium from seawater replaces some of the calcium in old limestones, these rock types form what? | dolostones |
| the energy of earthquakesis a direct result of rock rupture and what? | elastic rebound |
| what kind of stress does transform plate boundaries commonly experience? | shear stress |
| earthquakes causing the least potential damage are most commonly located where? | divergent boundaries |
| what is the point on the surface of the earth directly above the initial displacement of earthquake movement? | epicenter |
| what does the Benioff-Watadi Zone use to determine earthquakes? | the angle of subduction on decending plates by showing increasing quake depth |
| in order to accurately determine the epicenter of an earthquake, how many seismic stations are required? | 3 |
| what characteristic must be present for a discontinuity in rocks to be classified as a fault? | it must show evidence of movement |
| any fault that has shown motion in the last 10,000 years is considered by geologists to be what phase of dormancy? | active |
| what are the fastest type of seismic waves and are the first to arrive at a seismograph? | P-waves |
| the most damage to structures during earthquakes are caused by? | surface waves |
| intraplate earthquakes far from plate boundaries are commonly characterized by what? | large, shallow focus events |
| what waves are a type of body seismic waves? | P-waves |
| what are the written, visual records of the intensity of earthquakes called? | seismograms |
| what does the mercalli scale of earthquake magnitude rely on? | subjective descriptions of damage by eyewitnesses |
| one of the most signicicant disadvantages of the richter scale of earthquake intensity is what? | it was designed using 1930's technology |
| T or F: body and surface wave motion is a secondary effect of major earthquakes | fale |
| what was the bulk of destruction associated with the 1906 san francisco earthquake caused by? | fires |
| lequefaction occurs during earthquakes in areas where the soil or regolith overlying solid bedrock is what? | water saturated |
| buildings constructed on what, rare most likely to experience earthquake wave amplification that may result in severe structural damage? | soft muddy sediment |
| what was the pirate town of port royal, jamaica destroyed by in 1692? | liquifaction, brick buildings collapsed after earthquake |
| T or F: tsunamis commonly pass undetected in open ocean because they are less than a meter high | true |
| major concerns exist about future mega-earthquakes on the pacific northwest coasts because of abundant evidence of large ancient _____ | tsunamis |
| what long-term method is commonly used to forecast the probability of earthquakes in an area decades or even centures before they occur? | seismic gap theory |
| what are goelogists observing when they study the dilatency effects of stress on rocks along faults? | bedrock expansion |
| what is the most significant force driving mass mo vements of all kind? | gravity |
| which of the following does not ocntribute to downslope movement of material? | high strength and cohesiveness of slope material |
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rrgarner
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