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Ling final
Study of Language
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The action or practice of taking someone else's work, idea, etc and passing it off as one's own; literary theft. One citation per paragraph, use APA style, cite any knowledge you didn't have before taking this course | Plagiarism |
| A rewording of something written or spoken by someone else (different words, # of words, sent.struct. cited) | Paraphrase |
| The scientific study of language | Linguistics |
| observe data, make generalizations, develop hypothesis, test against more data. | scientific method |
| A set of rules that speakers of a language follow when they speak (mental, descriptive, prescriptive). The knowledge that a speaker has that allows him/her to identify utterances in their language (vs another language). | Grammar |
| A set of rules that a group of people came up with designed to regulate how we write (and speak). We were taught academic american english. | Prescriptive Grammar |
| A speaker's unconscious knowledge of their language | Mental Grammar |
| Grammars generated by linguists that reflect the mental grammars of native speakers of a language. They attempt to describe the rules we have in our minds that determine what is and isn't an acceptable utterance in our language. | Descriptive Grammar |
| Unintentional cuing of animals by their trainers when they do "good" things. Leads to misconception that animals are understanding things like math. | "The Clever Hans Effect" |
| A basic unit of language, every language is a complete system of signs. | Sign |
| Pertaining to a class of words that express only relations. Languages are symbolic. | Symbolic |
| A sign or representation that stands for its object by virtue of a resemblance or analogy to it | Iconic |
| Interchangeability, Cultural Transmission, Arbitrariness, Discreetness, Displacement, Productivity | Language (vs communication) |
| Both the sender and the receiver can exchange messages (Bees can't do this) | Interchangeability |
| Can be learned vs acquired | Cultural Transmission |
| little or no iconicity | Arbitraryness |
| message built out of parts | Discreetness |
| The ability to talk about things that are not present in the current context; the dimensions of time and space | Displacement |
| The ability to produce novel (new) utterances | Productivity |
| Forager bees can tell other bees about distance, direction and quality of food source. Cannot warn about predators or weather. Different species dance similarly but don't understand one another. Bees raised away from hive dance same as in, are understood | Bee Dances |
| Identify themselves, defend territory, find mates, keep flock together, warn about predators, signal safety. Involves both acquisition and social transmission. Imitation of other species (&other big things). | Bird Songs |
| Have hierarchical structures. Repetition of sounds in sequence (syntax-like). Changes year to year. Orcas have dialects that help ID pod membership | Whale Songs |
| Parrot. Taught to recognize and vocally identify things by shape and color. Learned to use "no" "want" and "come here" context appropriately. Able to combine words without being taught | Alex |
| Dog with 200 word vocabulary (toys). He can fast-map | Rico |
| When a new word is associated with a new object/idea after only one repetition | Fast mapping |
| Bonobo. Started learning lexigrams at 6 months. 348 recognized, 3000 claimed spoken. 59% accuracy. 32-65 exposures to learn. No spontaneous communication. | Kanzi |
| Positive views of a language stem from positive views of a culture and vice versa. The reason we think some languages sound prettier than others. | Social connotations hypothesis |
| The worldview of a culture is subtly conditioned by the structure of its language | Linguistic Relativism |
| The worldview of a culture is directly and unalterably determined by the structure of the language. (Native Americans and expressing time time continuum, Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) | Linguistic Determinism |
| Hopi - time is expressed by adverbs not nouns "The men left after the tenth day" Cyclic view of time, not forward. Manifest realm, recent past and present and Unimanifest realm, future mental mythological past and anything abstract | Whorf Hypothesis |
| Color Terminology, Grue. Subjects had to pick 1/3 color chips that was most different. Then only allowed to see 2 chips at a time. Attempt for English speakers to lose their bias. | Kay and Kempton (1984) |
| A systematic way of speaking used by a speaker in a given context. General term for any type of language, dialect, register, or accent variation. (Supposed to be a neutral term) | Language Variety |
| Variety used in a particular social context or situation (talking to interviewer vs siblings). Also called "speech style" | Register |
| Regional variety. All varieties of a language are a dialect. Not bad. | Dialect |
| Variety based on socioeconomic status | Sociolect |
| Personal variety | Idiolect |
| Mutual Intelligibility, Shared History, Politics | Language vs Dialect |
| When speakers of one language variety can understand and converse with speakers of another language variety | Mutual Intelligibility |
| The speakers of a given variety have a continuing historical relationship with the speakers of another variety | Shared History |
| "A language is a dialect with an army" | Politics |
| Cantonese and Mandarin can't communicate but are considered same language, Serbian and Croatian are mutually intelligible but are considered different, language continuums | Problems with Mutual Intelligibility |
| Pronunciation (phonology), words and word-building processes (morphology), different sentence making rules (syntax), different meanings (semantics), different rules of use (pragmatics) | How do Dialects vary? |
| A particular regional dialect influenced by phonology | Accent |
| Standard sociolects represent the prestige varieties, usually associated with high socio-economic status. Non-standard sociolects are often but not always associated with lower class (cockney) | Sociolects |
| Associated with standard dialect | Overt Prestige |
| Associated with non-standard dialect, related to identity with a particular social group. | Covert Prestige |
| Tend to be more grammatically regular and conservative than (overt) prestige varieties, yet are looked down upon. Speakers may hypercorrect to signal affiliation with prestige varieties | Stigmatized Varieties (Labov) |
| Traditional New England whaling community in 1960s was tourist destination. Dialect variation (mostly in middle age, who cared one way or another). Speakers may not be aware of their accents, but are unintentionally manipulating their speech | Martha's Vineyard (Labov) |
| study of physiology and production of speech sounds | Articulatory Phonetics |
| Study of the physical properties of speech sounds (waves) | Acoustic Phonetics |
| Study of the perception of speech sounds (hearing) | Auditory Phonetics |
| distinct units of speech sounds. NOT LETTERS. | Phones |
| Abstract mental units that represents sounds. Phones that distinguish among words and are indicated by //. A phone whose presence changes the meaning of a word. Abstract idea of tree-ness | Phoneme |
| Phonetic forms that do not contrast (make a difference in meaning) Indicated by []. Phones that do not distinguish among words and are indicated by square brackets. concrete examples of the same tree in different environments | Allophone |
| We know which phones are phonemes from pairs of words that differ only in one phone and whose meaning is different. | Minimal Pairs |
| Whether your vocal cords are vibrating or not | Voicing |
| Where the consonants are said | Place of Articulation |
| How the consonants are said | Manner of Articulation |
| voicing | Phonation |
| height, backness frontness, rounding, tenseness | Vowel features |
| tone, nasalization, length | Phonemic features |
| Pitch of a vowel which changes the meaning of a word. Can be either level or contour. (high, mid, low, falling) | Tone |
| marked with tilde over vowel | Nasalization |
| marked with a colon after the long vowel | Length |
| all languages have stops, most have /t/, most have more than one place of articulation, at least one fricative, at least one nasal, at least one fluid | Consonant facts |
| Generally consists of a C and a V. All languages have CV syllables, every vowel is a nucleus, every syllable has a nucleus. Ideal syllables move from low to high sonority | Syllable facts |
| (C)(C)(C) V (C)(C)(C)(C) [ onset ] [nucleus] [ coda ] [ rime ] | Syllable structure |
| Vowels>glides>liquids>nasals>fricatives>stops | Sonority hierarchy |
| node->OR R->NC count the number of syllables in each word. determine the nucleus of each syllable. maximize the onset. put all remaining consonants in coda. | Syllable tree |
| Rules that govern what sound sequences are possible in a language. Phono-sound, tactic-order. Part of abstract phonological grammar | Phonosyntactics |
| The study of the mental organization of a language's sound system. Biggest - syllables and words, middle - segments, smallest - features | Phonology |
| The units of phonological structure that are larger than the segment syllables, feet and words. Syllables organized -> feet, feet are the unit of metrical stress. They consist (usually) of a stressed & unstressed syllable. Feet are then organized -> words | Prosody |
| Hierarchical organization of sounds. Obey the sonority hierarchy. Phonological processes are sensitive to syllables. | Syllables |
| Best before stressed foot. Ala-fuckin-bama | Where does fuck go? |
| Sets of sounds that have one or more features in common and that behave in the same way with respect to the phonological processes in a language. | Natural Class |
| The smallest unit of a word | Morpheme |
| The sounds around a phoneme | Environment (of a phoneme) |
| When two phones are mutually exclusive, or appear in different environments. They are allophones of the same phoneme. Clark kent and superman. Figure which is predictable and which is elsewhere. | Complementary distribution |
| When two sounds appear in the same environment and don't make a difference in meaning. same phonemes. | Free variation |
| Same environment, different meaning. Different phonemes. | Contrastive Distribution |
| First, make a table that shows the environments where the sounds are found. Second, make observations about the environments in each column. Third, try to find a generalization that is 100% true of one column and 100% untrue of the others | Solving Phonology Problems |
| If you have two or more allophones of the same phoneme, you have to decide which of the allophones is the most basic. This is the elsewhere form. Also known as the underlying representation. | Elsewhere variant |
| When the distribution of a phone is predictable, you can write a rule that represents this distribution. These rules are part of mental grammar. Phoneme /X/ becomes -> allophone [Y] in the environment of/A followed by ____ B EW -> Pred /Env EW -> EW/E | Phonological rules |
| Because phonemes are abstract, the way that we think of them and the way we actually think of them can be quite different | Phonological Processes |
| Nasalization, Place assimilation | Assimilation |
| Sounds become less alike "fifths" "fifs" | Dissimilation |
| Segment insertion | Epenthesis |
| Removing a segment "suppose" "spose" | Deletion |
| Segment rearrangement "ask" "akse" | Metathesis |
| The articulation of one sound overlaps with the sounds before and after it | Coarticulation |
| First, look for minimal pairs (identical entire environments). Then look for near minimal pairs (identical immediate environments, close extended environments) | Expanded notion of environment |
| influence each other equally | Adstratum languages |
| superstratum languages will influence substratum languages more than substratum languages will influence superstratum languages | Superstratum/Substratum languages |
| found in areas of low intensity language contact | Lexical borrowing |
| requires a high intensity of language contact | Structural borrowing |
| Occurs where there is extensive, long-term contact between superstrate and substrate languages. A shift of native speakers away from their language and to another language. | Language shift |
| When there are no more native speakers of a language. Happens when the people who speak languages die, children stop learning the language, or languages have increasingly small spheres of use | Language death |
| When there are very few native speakers left and they are all elderly - no one in the new generation is learning the language | Endangered/Moribund language |
| Old native speakers can be documented. Languages can be revitalized/taught | Language death reversal |
| Two sounds that are 'different' from each other become 'the same' cot-caught, hock-hawk, don-dawn | Unconditional merger |
| Two 'different' sounds become 'the same' but only in a particular environment. Pin/pen merged in some places but bit/bet are still different | Conditional merger |
| Coordinated, stepwise change in the pronunciation of sounds in at least one variety of language (chaucer to shakespeare is the great vowel shift) | Chain shift |
| lexical indices of dialect boundaries (coke/pop, creek/brook, etc) | Isoglosses |
| A change over time, that is complete from the perspective of the current time | Dichronic Change |
| A change that is happening now. | Synchronic Change |
| Within a language - to understand the grammatical history Across language - to understand the historical relationships among the languages and varieties existent at a certain point of time | Reasons for studying Historical Linguistics |
| reconstruction, proto-languages, proto forms and cognates, comparative method | Links among languages |
| The claim that two languages are related is actually a claim that there was a past time when they were the same | Related languages |
| when the "mother language" is not attested, it has to be constructed or hypothesized | Proto-language |
| Joseph Greenburg - protoworld hypothesis. Extra-linguistic evidence, DNA, anthropological record, cultural similarities. Ling evidence - cognates and correspondances | Language Families |
| words that have the same meaning and similar phonological forms | Cognates |
| DO NOT have the same meaning, but do have the same phonological form | False cognates |
| historical linguists look for regular sound correspondences in cognate words in languages that might be related. Assumption 1 - regular sound changes do not occur accidentally Assumption 2- cognates are more likely to occur in 'core vocabulary' | The Comparative Method |
| First, compile a list of cognates. Throw out possible borrowings. Second, determine correspondances Third, reconstruct a sound (total or most natural development) Fourth, check for regularity of change | Historical Linguistics problems |
| stops become fricatives between vowels, consonants become voiceless/delete at the ends of words, fricatives become /h/, voiceless stops become /?/ | Lention/Weakening |
| Assimilation, Dissimilation, Deletion, Epenthesis, Metathesis, backing/fronting, raising/lowering, lenition/weakening | Natural Sound Changes |
| Celts on British isles. Celtic was super. Then Rome invaded and roman was super. | 300BCE-600CE |
| Britons vulnerable to Pict&Scot invasions after Romans went home. Invited Germanic tribe over to help them (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) | 410-449 CE |
| English in England. The only good Celt is a dead Celt. Very few borrowings (place names), brought over Latin borrowings. | 450-850 ish |
| Around 600 they were converted to Catholicism and Latin became important again, lots of borrowing (pope, demon, etc) Adstratum | 600 CE |
| Vikings fucked shit up. | 790-800 |
| Many things translated into Old English. | 871-899 |
| Norwegian king got the upper hand and ruled. Vikings married English women so borrowing happened both ways. Adstratum. borrowings of /sk/ words and words like egg, flat, gift, die, husband, ill. | 1016-1042 |
| French Invasion. superstratum - french. | 1066-1266 |
| Middle English, if someone didnt know a word they would use a french word to sound higher class. lost most of cases system became fixed SVO. Great vowel shift. | 1200 |
| English Renaissance. People starting to write. Older terms came back (astound, doom, flout, weird). Words borrowed from trade (cinnamon, lemon, ginger) | 1450-1600 |
| Borrowing (limited) since they were superstratum like celts and angles. | 1600-1750 |
| The unconscious, socially defined gender that is associated with words in a language | Covert Gender |
| A functional morpheme present in the sentence and required by the grammar. Like with "la" and "le" | Grammatical Gender |
| Use of universal "He" and kids testing, potential legal issues, linguistic relativism (when you put emphasis on woman's marital status, you make words to express it) Relative pitch differs culturally | Effects of gender |
| Male norm, womens' speech viewed as less prestigious, yet women generally use more prestigious form (role models/caretakers, have played lower roles in society so taking a step up, worried about people judging them) | Genderlect |
| number of turns taken, length of turns, who interrupts, types of words and questions, relative social positions of people. Men take the floor 2/3 of the time. | The Floor/Conversational Analysis |
| "mmhmm" and "yeah" during a conversation. Men take it as agreement. Women take it as "I hear you/continue" | Back Channeling |
| typically used by women to sound less aggressive. used by men to confirm information that they already know. can be used by anyone to force an answer. | Tag questions |
| A discreet form that can be manipulated by syntax | Word |
| Idioms "the cat's out of the bag" and clitics "je m'appelle" (and contractions), bracketing "transformational grammarian" | Word problem cases |
| Speaker's mental dictionary, where words are permanently stored. (all caps = mental representation) | Lexicon |
| The minimal unit of meaning. The internal units of word structure. 2 usages. 1 refers to the meaning of an underlying word-part, 2 refers to the phonological chunk representing the meaning (known as a morph) | Morphemes |
| Varient forms of a morpheme. The distribution of allomorphs can be conditioned by phonology (walked v sneezed v handed), lexicon | Allomorph |
| Cranberry morphemes, greek and latin morphemes (co-, -fer) | Problem cases for morphemes |
| Words whose form and meaning can not be predicted from anything else. Simple words composed of one morpheme | Monomorphemic words |
| words whose form and meaning can be constructed and comprehended by the application of general rules. Words composed of two or more morphemes | Complex words |
| Can stand alone. (free-, -stand) | Free morphemes |
| attach to another morpheme to make a word (-ing, -s, -eme) | Bound morphemes |
| when words are built by assembling morphemes in an additive, linear fashion. | Concatenative morphology |
| morphemes you can attach to the beginning, end, or insert in the middle of a word | Affix |
| Most common form of concatenative morphology | Affixation |
| The smallest basic part; can be free or bound | Root |
| Any form that an affix attaches to. A root can also be a stem if it has morphemes attached to it. | Stem (aka base) |
| Bound morpheme, precedes the stem, can be more than one | Prefixes |
| Bound morpheme, follows stem, can be more than one | Suffixes |
| Bound morpheme, appears inside the stem, can have multiple in a word (not in English though) | Infixes |
| Bound morpheme, appears before and after stem, can have multiple (not in English) | Circumfixes |
| doubling the whole or part of a morpheme | Reduplication |
| THE 8 (-s, -s, -'s, -ed, -ing, -en, -er, -erst) Doesn't change part of speech or content, required by syntax, is productive, occur at margins of words | Inflectional Morphemes* |
| lots of these (re-, -ness, -able, in-, etc.) Can change part of speech, not required by syntax, not always productive, before inflection | Derivational Morphemes |
| Person, Number, Case (nominative, accusative), Tense (present, past) and Aspect (completeness), Directionality (toward the sea), Evidentiality (because God said so), Mood (indicative, subjunctive) | Types of Inflectional Morphemes |
| Way of organizing nouns into groups. Animacy, Gender, Arbitrary | Classification |
| First, compare words in target language with similar meanings and phonological shapes. Compare, contrast, look for patterns. DON'T assume morphemes are syllables. DON'T only look for things that exist in English | Morphology problem tips (general) |
| Step 1, Isolate and Compare partially similar forms. Step 2, if one phonetic form has two distinct meanings, classify it as two different morphemes. | How to do Morphology* |
| New words (added to languages all the time). | Neologisms |
| Taking words from other languages and putting them in our language (whiskey, galore, hooligan) | Borrowing |
| Creation of new words out of new combinations of syllables, usually for a commercial purpose. (Kodak, teflon, viagra) | Word Coinage |
| When the word coinage process is so effective that the product name becomes the generic term. (Kleenex, Q-tip, Saran wrap) | Generification |
| When a name is converted into a regular noun. (sandwich) | Eponyms |
| Shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables. (taxi cab, phys-ed, condo, burger) | Clipping |
| Mixes together non-morphemic parts of two already existing words. (brunch, brinner, puggle) | Blends |
| Removes a real or supposed affix from an existing word. (enthuse, edit, burgle) | Backformation |
| The initial letters of some or all of the words in a phrase are pronounced as a word (SCUBA, RADAR, LASER) | Acronyms |
| When you say the first letters of a series of words to abbreviate them. (FBI, CEO) | Initialism |
| No prefix or suffix is added, rather an already existing word is assigned to a new syntactic category (hand, father, friend, butter) | Conversion |
| The combination of two or more existing words to create a new word. N+N = firetruck A+N = bluebird, V+N = jumpsuit, P+N = afterthought, N+V = spoonfed, A+V = whitewash, P+V = overlook, V+V = dropkick, N+A = nationwide, A+A = redhot, P+A = overgrown | Compounding |
| Usually determined by the rightmost morpheme in English. Determines lexical category. Head usually stressed.Tense and plurals can't be added to the head. | Compounding heads |
| Larger compounds can be made from smaller ones | Recursive |
| denotes a subtype of the concept denoted by its head (dog food, bath towel, policemen) | Endocentric compounds |
| meaning of the compound does not follow from the meaning of the parts (turncoat, redneck, walkmans) | Exocentric compounds |
| Affixes are hierarchically organized in complex words. Can be ambiguity with stuff like "unlockable" | Affixes and hierarchical structure |
| Instead of clear affixes being added to specific parts of the word, the words themselves will change to show the change in meaning caused by the morpheme. Inflectional and derivational morphemes are integrated into the root instead of added on the ends. | Non-concatenative morphology |
| Complete replacement of the root. (I am, I was, she is, they are) | Suppletion |
| phonological changes in the root that cause a grammatical change (no english examples, but like if gur meant stone and gu:r means stones) | Internal change |
| Past tense and past participle signaled by vowel change (ring, rang, rung) | Ablaut |
| Plural change is signaled by change in vowel (man men, feet foot, goose geese) | Umlaut |
| There is a consonantal root, and inflection is indicated by the vowels and pattern of consonants and vowels | Templatic Morphology |
| Did a study on what we actually hear (sentences, sounds, words). Found that words are easier to listen for than sounds. But it's hard to understand words unless they're in sentences. But it's hard to get the sentence if it's not connected to meaning. | George Miller |
| Study of how words combine with one another to form phrases, how phrases combine to form grammatical sentences | Syntax |
| To explain why languages work the way they do | Goal of Linguistic theory |
| All languages have highly similar syntactic structures, even though they look different on the surface. Structure is formal and independent of meaning. | Formalism/Minimalism |
| Claim that structure is more closely related to meaning | Functionalism |
| The meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meaning of its parts and their hierarchal relationship to one another. We need to know the meaning of the parts (morphology and semantics) and the relationship between the parts | Principle of compositionality |
| The building blocks of sentences/syntactic categories. Nouns, Verbs, Prepositions, Adjectives, Adverbs, etc | Parts of speech |
| (person, place or thing) | Noun |
| (action, state of being) | Verb |
| (expresses quality, quantity or extent) | Adjective |
| (expresses manner, quality, place, time, degree, number, cause, opposition, affirmation or denial) | Adverb |
| (expresses location or origin) | Preposition |
| Multiple parts of speech, cross linguistic problems, words->nonwords | Problems with semantic definitions of POS |
| Determine POS of a word by the affixes attached to it and by syntactic context. Distributional (looking for the context) makes definition specific | Distributional Definitions |
| Affixes which attach to a word | Morphological Distribution |
| Position relative to nearby words | Syntactic Distribution |
| After determiners, adjectives, prepositions. Subject or direct object of sentence. Negated by no. | Noun (distributional) |
| Follows auxiliaries, modals, infinitive marker "to." Negated with not. Can sometimes follow subjects and adverbs such as often and frequently. | Verbs (distributional) |
| Between determiners and nouns. Can follow am/is/are/was/were/be/been/being (so can verbs). Can be modified with "very" (so can adverbs). | Adjectives (distributional) |
| Can't appear between a determiner and a noun or after "is" and its variants. Usually at beginning/end of a sentence or after clause. Can be modified with "very" | Adverbs (distributional) |
| Allow new words, express content (N, Adj, V, Adv) | Open POS |
| Usually open class (except some pronouns) Doesn't allow neologisms, expresses function (prepositions, conjunctions, modals, auxiliaries, determiners/articles, pronouns, etc) | Closed POS |
| Expresses the contentful/referential part of the meaning. What you would send in a telegraph | Lexical POS |
| Closed class, expresses grammatical information in the sentence. glue that holds the sentence together | Functional POS |
| The representation of the hierarchical structure of sentences by grouping words together into phrases | Phrase structure |
| Sentences are made up of words and phrases. To draw a tree you need to understand how parts relate to one another using phrase structure rules | Sentence structure |
| A sentence | Tense Phrase (TP) |
| Phrase that has a noun as its head | Noun Phrase (NP) |
| Phrase that has a verb as its head | Verb Phrase (VP) |
| Phrase that has a preposition as its head | Prepositional Phrase (PP) |
| A clause | Complementizer Phrase (CompP) |
| Functional word or morpheme that gives information about the location or direction of the event described by the verb. In English, we only have prepositions, but there are postpositions in other languages. Modify NP | Adposition |
| &/or. Tells us we want to combine two phrases together. They must be of the same type. | Coordination (Coord) |
| TP -> TP N VP TP -> NP VP NP -> (Det) (Adj+) N (PP+) VP -> (Adv+) VP (Adv+) VP -> V (NP) (NP) VP -> V CompP VP -> V PP PP -> P NP CompP -> Comp TP XP -> XP Coord XP | Phrase Structure Rules (How to draw trees)* |
| Having heard the sentence before, meaningfulness or truth | Grammaticality is NOT based on |
| Inherently in the meanings of verbs can be a requirement that they co-occur (or not) with other elements in a sentence | Argument structure |
| Needs only a subject, single-argument verbs. (I laughed) | Intransitive verbs |
| 2-argument verb, requires two NPs, a subject and an object. (I threw the ball) | Transitive verbs |
| 3-argument verbs, need a subject, an object and a location. (I put the book on the floor. | Ditransitive verbs |
| Easy- SVO (English), SOV (Turkish, Japanese), VOS (Malagasy), OVS (Hixkaryana-rare) Hard - VSO (Irish, Mayan), OSV (not attested, maybe Yiddish "Him I don't like" maybe Yoda) Free word order | Logically possible word orders |
| Can have the same meanings even though the linear order and structure are different. Sentences with the same linear order can also have different meanings. | Related sentences |
| Meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meaning of its parts and their hierarchal relationship to one another | Compositionality* |
| Multiple possible interpretations of a sentence due to the fact that certain words have more than one meaning | Lexical Ambiguity |
| The sentence is ambiguous due to the stick of the tree. | Structural Ambiguity |
| A group of words (or a single word) that functions as a unit. | Constituent |
| Can you ask questions about it (Who, what, how)? Can it stand alone? Can it be moved (the tall man made a very large sign/a very large sign was made by the tall man)? Can it be replaced by a single word (NP-pronoun, VP-do so, PP-there)? | Constituency tests |
| Looks at contributions of the grammar to language. The focus is on the literal interpretation of words and sentences | Semantics |
| Looks at the contributions of the context and social situation of the language. The focus is on the communicative intent of the speaker | Pragmatics |
| The object or action in the real world that the word picks out. The extension is the set of items that could possibly be the denotation (cat). Actual thing out in the physical world. | Denotation |
| The mental concept that is associated with the word; the possible things that a word or phrase could describe. Our mental definition of a thing. You can have a sense of unicorns but not a denotation. | Sense |
| Doer, initiator of the action | Semantic roles - Agent |
| Done about/around; object or individual moved by the action. Theme - no change of state, just being moved Patient - change of state (ice melted) Experiencer - aware of action but does not control it | Semantic roles - Theme/Patient/Experiencer |
| The action is done here | Semantic roles - Location |
| Done with this, secondary cause of event | Semantic roles - Instrument |
| Done in this direction, entity toward which the event is directed | Semantic roles - Goal |
| Done from this, entity from which something is moved by the event, or from which the event originates | Semantic roles - Source |
| Meaning in context | Pragmatics |
| Something you commit to in a sentence. | Entailment |
| Something that you don't explicitly say in a sentence but is implied | Implicature |
| How you can tell whether something is an entailment or an implicature. If you deny something that you say in the sentence then you get a contradiction and its an entailment | Deniability test |
| Very common, used to be polite and avoid repetitions. "Do you want to get dinner" "I just ate" Low stakes | Indirect speech act |
| Rules that we expect people to follow and that we follow ourselves under normal circumstances | Cooperative principle |
| Whatever you say should apply to the situation. Listeners try to accommodate and make things relevant. | Grice's maxims - Relevance |
| Don’t say more than you have evidence for “Is it raining?” “I’ve seen a lot of wet umbrellas” | Grice's maxims - Quality |
| Be as informative as required by the situation. “where are you from?” cocktail party vs legal document | Grice's maxims - Quantity |
| Be clear and concise. Don’t be Polonius. | Grice's maxims - Manner |
| Defying maxims in an obvious way. Relevance - recommendation letter. Quality - sarcasm. Manner - music review | Flout |
| Is the present king of France bald? -there is no king of France | Presupposition failure |
| sentence type | Speech acts (direct and indirect) |
| • offering new information • declarative - it’s raining – direct • interrogative – isn’t her hat nice? – indirect • imperative – know that it’s raining - indirect | Assertions |
| • requesting information • interrogative - is it raining? – direct • declarative – it’s raining? – indirect • imperative – tell me if it’s raining - indirect | Questions |
| • inviting an action • imperative – take out the garbage – direct • declarative – It’s cold in here – indirect • interrogative – isn’t that music a little loud? – indirect | Commands |
| Words you are not supposed to say for fear of invoking their power. The power of words - all cultures have words which can not be uttered. | Taboo |
| Powerful animals, Powerful beings, death | Common cross-linguistic taboos |
| sexuality and bodily function | European taboos |
| Sometimes, names become taboo upon that persons death Jewish- have to name the next in line an A name if an A name just died. Aborigine- can't say name or things rhyming with name. Ute - name will wake them up. Navajo- name will invite trouble from dead | Name taboos |
| Bastard, Zounds, Jeepers, Bloody, God and other variations, ass, gay | Taboos through time |
| George Carlin radio broadcast considered indecent, was on at 2 in the afternoon. Those 7 don't have other meanings | 7 dirty words you can't say on tv |
| The substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant | Euphemisms |
| Racial Slurs and terms for mentally disabled come from fear of what? Cursing actually helps alleviate pain, associated with mental diseases such as tourettes, epilepsy, some dementias, klazomania (compulsive shouting). Fuck is the only english infix | Offensive words |
| What we fear shows up as taboos. Who is it okay for to curse? When is it okay to curse? | Taboo and linguistic relativism |
| Face to face conversation, take on baby perspectives in convo, accept improper utterances, masks incompetence, widely varying first words | White American baby talk |
| Don't talk to babies but hold them all the time, takes on baby perspectives in convo but uses adult voice, child mistakes are ignored, first words always mother or breast | Kaluli, Papa New Guinea |
| Birth - 5 m they're called baby-thing-thing and cared for by lots of people, language directed at baby is soft and singsong, children away from adults, crawling=willful, communication to child imperative, expected to accommodate, first word expletive | Western Samoa |
| Children start with a blank slate and respond to stimuli. Response to rewards/punishment (negated by mommy me loves you and Mother, I went potty in my bed). Relies on child hearing everything before they say it (negated by I goed, I wented) | Behaviorism (Skinner) |
| Everyone has a language acquisition device in their brain | Inateness |
| Language skill ≠ cognitive development | How children do not learn language |
| Once you get past a certain age (12 or so) you can't learn language. Evidence - Wild Boy of Avignon, Genie, Late signers | Critical period hypothesis |
| Calculating statistical probabilities with which certain syllables follow others (babies recognized syllables) Statistical learning. Or rule learning, they recognize patterns. | How children might learn language |
| vegetative noises | Newborn (0-2 months) |
| cooing and laughter | 2-4 months |
| vocal play - long drawn out sounds but not adult like | 4-6 months |
| canonical babbling "mamamamamamama" | 6-9 months |
| variegated babbling (sounds like english conversation), proto-words | 9-12 months |
| First words. At 12 months the baby knows ~50-100 but may only produce 5-10. After the first few words it's ~8-11 words a month | 10-15 months |
| ~50 words or more, start of word spurt where children learn ~22-37 words/month | 18 months |
| What is/isn't a word? Words not isolated very often. Mondegreens happen. | Segmentation problem |
| L1-the language you learn from birth on L2-language you learned later L3-language you learned after L2 | L1, L2, L3 |
| learning 2 languages from birth. Might be hard initially for children to distinguish between the two, but once they get it, they do better in school. | Simultaneous Bilingualism |
| learning a second language a significant amount of time after the L1 has taken place | Sequential Bilingualism |
| a system of mental representations influenced by both a first and second language that has features of each. Results in transfer errors | Interlanguage grammar |
| Not quite, personality factors a lot more. Shy children will not speak L2 as well. If they don't know their L1 that well when they start learning the L2, they could be better at the L2. | Is L1 acquisition the same as L2 learning? |
| Simultaneous bilinguals tend to be more balanced that sequential bilinguals, but admittedly there tend to be different spheres of use | Language dominance |
| The study of how the mind produces and processes language. Looks at parsing and reveals that speech production processes are highly automatic | Psycholinguistsics |
| Tentententententententententen what are aluminum cans made out of? Both phonological and lexical | Priming |
| separating the speech stream into identifiable units and then extracting the meaning of those units. Buckaneer-pirate. Buck an ear-price of corn. Mondegreens | Parsing |
| A spoken sentence often contains words not intended to be heard. Your ease in reading a series of words is somehow influenced by spaces marking off each of the boundaries. If you can use empty space in an artfully misleading ways, it is even harder | Parsing issues |
| Pre-linguistic (picture of windmill). Search for describing words (mental representations). Create a sentence with structure but not phonological form. Convert sentence to sounds (phonemes and rules). Say sentence. Listener must undo this process | Basic model of conversation |
| Example of how automatic language processing is and how little it is subject to our control. Colors/words. | Stroop |
| Sound/mouth movement | McGurk |
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haleyBUGoxox
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