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Patho Exam 2 Review
Ch. 7, 8, 9, & 10
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| A growth that is not cancer; Does not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body, | Benign tumor. |
| A growth that is made of cancer cells; can invade nearby tissues and metastasize. | Malignant tumor. |
| Gastritis | Inflammation of the stomach lining; Caused by alcohol, aspirin, and bacteria. |
| GERD (Gastroesophageal reflux disease) | Backflow of gastric contents into esophagus through lower esophageal sphincter; Complications include inflammation, irritation and swelling, narrowing of the esophagus. |
| Appendicitis | Signs: Right lower quadrant pain Inflammation of the vermiform appendix; Symptoms: McBurney’s point (Right side of abdomen), nausea, vomiting, fever, diarrhea, inflammation. |
| Causes of bowel obstructions. | Hernias, colon cancer, certain medications, inflamed intestine EX: Crohn’s disease. |
| Functional bowel obstructions | There is no physical blockage, however, the bowels are not moving food through the digestive tract. |
| Mechanical obstructions | Adhesions (Scar like tissue), hernia (Fatty tissue squeezing through muscle), tumors, impacted feces. |
| Signs and symptoms of stage I liver disease. | Hepatocellular failure (decreased clotting factors) |
| Signs and symptoms of stage II liver disease. | Portal hypertension (Increase in pressure within the portal vein (EX: GI congestion carries blood from the digestive organs to the liver) |
| Signs and symptoms of stage III liver disease. | Jaundice (yellowing of skin and breakdown of red blood cells) |
| Signs and symptoms of stage IV liver disease. | Ascites: Pathologic accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity; Diagnosis: Fluid examination from abdominal paracentesis |
| Signs and symptoms of stage V liver disease. | Hepatic Encephalopathy (Complex neuropsychiatric syndrome from too much ammonia); Symptoms: dementia, psychotic symptoms, mild confusion. |
| Signs and symptoms of stage VI (end stage) liver disease. | Cirrhosis: irreversible end stage of many different hepatic injuries (EX: Severe acute hepatitis; Chronic hepatitis; Toxic hepatitisa); Alcoholism |
| Gallstones | Hardened deposits of digestive fluid; Clinical manifestations: pain in abdomen, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, cramping. |
| Pancreatitis | Inflammation of the pancreas; Autodigestion of the pancreas from enzyme activation; Clinical manifestations: pain in epigastrium, increases in intensity, severe palpation, nausea. |
| Function of kidneys | Act as efficient filters to get rid of waste and toxic substances and returning vitamins into the bloodstream. |
| Assessment of kidney function | Urine and blood tests EX: Abnormal urine albumin (Globular protein) levels. |
| Polycystic kidney disease | Clusters of cysts (non-cancerous sacs containing water like fluid) develop in the kidneys. |
| Nephrons | Responsible for filtering specific substances from the blood. |
| Hematuria | Blood in the urine. |
| Proteinuria | Loss of large amounts of protein in the urine. |
| Nephrolithiasis | The process of forming a kidney stone in the kidney. |
| Pyelonephritis | Urinary tract Infection (UTI) that generally begins in your urethra and travels to one or both of your kidneys. |
| Cystitis | Inflammation of the bladder lining. |
| Etiology and manifestations of post-infectious acute glomerulonephritis | Etiology: Skin and throat infections caused by B hemolytic streptococcus; Clinical Manifestations: Smoky colored urine, proteinuria, edema, decreased urine output. |
| Signs and symptoms of acute kidney injury (AKI) / Acute renal failure | Signs: Disruptions in fluid electrolyte and acid base balances; AKI Symptoms: Decreased urine output. |
| Pre-renal | Before kidneys; Decreasing blood flow to kidneys (bleeding, low BP, sepsis, dehydration); Can be short term; Not long before kidney damage. |
| Post-renal | Interference with urine secretion; Tumors or BPH; Remove the obstruction!! |
| Intrinsic/Intrarenal | Directly damage structure of kidney; Reduced blood supply, infection, inflammation, toxic injury (NSAIDS & contrast dye are VERY toxic) |
| Stages of AKI presentation | Prodromal /Asymptomatic phase, Oliguric phase, Diuretic phase, & Recovery phase. |
| Prodromal phase of acute renal failure | Normal or declining urine output; 1st phase of acute renal failure; most likely no symptoms. |
| Oliguric phase of acute renal failure | 2nd phase of acute renal failure; May last up to 8 weeks; Daily urine output decreases to approx. 400 mL or less & waste products begin to accumulate in blood. |
| Diuretic/Post oliguric phase of acute renal failure. | 3rd phase of acute renal failure; Daily urine output increases to as much as 5 L. |
| Recovery phase of acute renal failure. | 4th/final phase of acute renal failure; Glomerular function gradually returns to normal. |
| The 5 stages of chronic renal failure. | I, II, III, IV, V |
| Stage I of chronic renal failure. | 1st stage of chronic renal failure; Kidney damage present, but GFR is >90. |
| Stage II of chronic renal failure. | 2nd stage of chronic renal failure; Kidney damage worsens as the GFR falls (60-89). |
| Stage III of chronic renal failure. | 3rd stage of chronic renal failure; Kidney damage is significantly impaired as GFR is between 30-59. |
| Stage IV of chronic renal failure. | 4th stage of chronic renal failure; Kidney function barely present with GFR dropping between 15-29. |
| Stage V of chronic renal failure. | 5th/final stage of chronic renal failure; Kidney failure; GFR drops <15 or patient begins dialysis. |
| Where are the kidneys located? | On either side of the vertebrae in retroperitoneal space. |
| What is the renal capsule? | Connective tissue surrounding the kidney. |
| What is the renal cortex? | Area immediately beneath the capsule, which contains the nephrons. |
| What is the function of the renal artery? | Supplies kidneys with blood. |
| What is the renal hilum? | The opening in the kidney through which the renal artery and nerves enter and the renal vein and ureter exit. |
| What is the renal sinus? | The cavity that forms the renal pelvis. |
| What are calyces? | Tubes through which urine drains into the renal pelvis. |
| What is the bowman's capsule? | A double membrane that surrounds the glomerulus. |
| Enuresis | Form of urinary incontinence; Involuntary urination by a child after 4–5 years of age; Nocturnal enuresis: bed-wetting; Causes may be psychological and structural; Usually resolves with or without treatment |
| Transient incontinence | Form of urinary incontinence; Resulting from a temporary condition ; Caused by: delirium, infection, atrophic vaginitis, use of certain medications (e.g., diuretics and sedatives), psychological factors, high urine output, restricted mobility, fecal impaction, alcohol, and caffeine. |
| Reflex incontinence | Form of urinary incontinence; Caused by trauma or damage to the nervous system; Detrusor hyperreflexia: increased detrusor muscle contractility that occurs even though there is no sensation to void; Urgency is generally absent. |
| Stress incontinence | Form of urinary incontinence; Loss of urine from pressure exerted on the bladder by coughing, sneezing, laughing, exercising, or lifting something heavy; Occurs when the sphincter muscle of the bladder is weakened; Contributing factors: pregnancy, childbirth, menopause, cystocele, prostate removal, obesity, and chronic coughing. |
| Urge incontinence | Form of urinary incontinence; Sudden, intense urge to urinate, followed by an involuntary loss of urine; Caused by: UTIs, bladder irritants, bowel conditions, smoking, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, injury, and nervous system damage; Overactive bladder: urge incontinence with no known cause. |
| Overflow incontinence | Form of urinary incontinence; Inability to empty the bladder, or retention; Other indications include dribbling urine and a weak urine stream; Caused by: bladder damage, urethral blockage, nerve damage, and prostate conditions; Chronic overdistension occurs because of a perceived inability to interrupt work to void that results in detrusor muscle areflexia and overflow incontinence. |
| Mixed incontinence | Occurs when symptoms of more than one type of urinary incontinence are experienced. |
| Functional incontinence | Occurs in many older adults, especially people in nursing home, who have a physical or mental impairment that prevents toileting in time. |
| Gross total incontinence | A continuous leaking of urine, day and night, or the periodic uncontrollable leaking of large volumes of urine; The bladder has no storage capacity; Caused by: anatomic defects, spinal cord or urinary system injuries, and fistulas between the bladder and an adjacent structure, such as the vagina. |
| Risk factors for urinary incontinence. | Being female; Advancing age; Being overweight; Smoking. Complications of urinary incontinence. Skin problems; Recurrent urinary tract infections; Negative psychological consequences; Interruption of usual activities. |
| Neurogenic Bladder | Bladder dysfunction caused by an interruption of normal bladder nerve innervation; Symptoms of an overactive and underactive bladder. |
| What is hypospadias? | Urethral meatus being on ventral surface of the penis & extending the length of penis. |
| What is epispadias? | Urethral meatus occurs on the dorsal surface of the penis & may extend the entire length of penis. |
| Cryptorchidism | Disorder of male reproductive system; 1 or both testes not descended from abdomen to scrotum prior to birth; May not require treatment, but if it does options include manual manipulation, hormones, surgery, orchiectomy, implants. |
| Phimosis | Disorder of male reproductive system; Foreskin cannot be retracted over glans; Treatment includes foreskin stretching or circumcision. |
| Priapism | Disorder of male reproductive system; Prolonged painful erection; Treatment includes needle aspiration. |
| Hydrocele | Disorder of male reproductive system; Fluid accumulation between layers of tunica & cord; Treatment includes sitz baths & scrotal elevation. |
| Spermatocele | Disorder of male reproductive system; Sperm containing cysts between testes & epididymis; Treatment includes surgery if they become large. |
| Variocele | Disorder of male reproductive system; Dilated vein in spermatic cord; Treatment includes possible surgery. |
| Testicular torsion | Disorder of male reproductive system; Twisted testes on cord; Treatment include manual manipulation or surgery. |
| Prostatitis | Disorder of male reproductive system; Inflammation of the prostate (acute or chronic); Treatment organism-specific antibiotics, analgesics, antipyretics, adequate hydration, sitz baths, & prostatic massages. |
| Epididymitis | Disorder of male reproductive system; Inflammation of the epididymis; Treatment includes antibiotics, analgesics, bed rest, scrotal support, elevation, cold application, & screen/treat sexual partners. |
| What is amemorrhea? | ABSENCE of menstruation. |
| What is dysmenorrhea? | PAINFUL menstruation. |
| Cystocele | Disorder of female reproductive system; Bladder protrudes into anterior wall of vagina; Treatment includes pessary device, surgery, & estrogen. |
| Rectocele | Disorder of female reproductive system; Rectum protrudes through posterior wall of vagina; Treatment includes surgery, estrogen. |
| Uterine prolapse | Disorder of female reproductive system; Descent of the uterus or cervix into the vagina (1st, 2nd, & 3rd degree); Treatment includes surgical repair. |
| Endometriosis | Disorder of female reproductive system; Endometrium grows in areas outside the uterus (most commonly in the fallopian tubes, ovaries, and peritoneum, but can be anywhere); Treatment includes analgesics, hormones, & surgical repair. |
| Ovarian cyst | Disorder of female reproductive system; Benign, fluid-filled sacs on the ovary; Treatment may not be required, but if it is includes hormones, analgesics, manage metabolic & other disorders, and surgery. |
| Fibrocystic breast disease | Disorder of female reproductive system; Numerous benign nodules in breasts; becomes more prominent & painful during menstruation; Treatment not usually required, but in some cases needle aspiration, heat/cold, surgery, analgesics. |
| Mastitis | Disorder of female reproductive system; Breast tissue inflammation associated with infection and lactation; Treatment includes antibiotics, hydration, rest, analgesics, needle aspiration, milk expression, |
| Candidiasis | Disorder of female reproductive system; Yeast infection caused by common fungus candida albicans, can mimic other infections; thick white cottage cheese-like discharge; Treatment includes antifungal agents, perineum care, safe sex, not douching, resist scratching, eat yogurt. |
| Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) | Disorder of female reproductive system; Infection of the female reproduction system; Treatment includes antibiotics, screen/treat sex partners, safe sex, avoid douching, infertility eval, treat abscesses. |
| 1st degree uterine prolapse | Cervix dropped into vagina. |
| 2nd degree uterine prolapse | Cervix apparent at vaginal opening. |
| 3rd degree uterine prolapse | Cervix & uterus bulge through vaginal opening. |
| Which organisms/viruses contribute to pelvic inflammatory disease? | Chlamydia trachomatis |
| Which organisms/viruses contribute to cervical cancer? | HPV, HSV 2 |
| Which organisms/viruses contribute to UTI's? | E Coli as well as chlamydia |
| Which organisms/viruses contribute to herpes? | HSV 1 and HSV 2 |
| Which organisms/viruses contribute to syphilis? | Treponema Pallidum and anaerobic spirochete : |
| Stages of syphilis | Incubation, primary, secondary, latent, tertiary/late. |
| Incubation stage of syphilis | Period of 10 to 90 days |
| Primary stage of syphilis | Formation of painless lesion on male only. Good 3 to 6 weeks. |
| Secondary stage of syphilis | Sore throat, fever, rashes and lumps across body. |
| Latent stage of syphilis | No symptoms are present, can last 40 years. |
| Tertiary/late stage of syphilis | Final destructive phase of disease; Blindness or paresis. |
| Hyperemesis Gravidarum | Nausea and vomiting during pregnancy. |
| Gigantism | Pituitary gland creates too much growth hormone; Occurs before skeletal plates fuse at the ends of bones; Leaves client with increased risk for cardiac problems; The client will also be very tall. |
| Dwarfism | Growth hormone deficiency; Achondroplasia; It causes short stature, hypoglycemia, delayed dental eruption, thin hair, poor nail growth, greater fat mass, decreased muscle mass, and delayed bone formation and puberty. is congenital or idiopathic |
| Acromegaly | Too much growth hormone; Increase in density of bones; Grows more thickened. |
| What electrolyte is most affected by disorders of ADH (antidiuretic hormone) production? | Sodium; Hyponatremia (Low blood sodium) (low ADH=high Na, high ADH=low Na) |
| Hypothyroidism | Elevated Thyroid stimulation hormone; Low t3 and t4 because Pituitary produces more TSH; Decreased metabolic rate; High TSH; If left untreated: Myxedemab. |
| Hyperthyroidism | Increased T3 and T4 cells; Causes graves disease; Increase metabolic rate. |
| Which electrolyte is primarily affected by PTH (parathyroid hormone) disorders? | Calcium |
| Parathyroid hormone | Produced by parathyroid gland; Increases the calcium levels in the blood to be released from bone reservoirs by activating osteoclasts; Also increases calcium absorption in the intestines and excretion in urine. |
| Signs and symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome | Excessive glucocorticoids; hypertension, edema, hypernatremia |
| Signs and symptoms of Addison’s disease | Decreased glucocorticoid levels due to autoimmune condition or removal of adrenal glands; weight loss, hypoglycemia and hyperkalemia |
| Diabetes insipidus (DI) | Decrease of an anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) production; Individuals will lose allot of fluid through urination causing dehydration; Causes the body to not retain enough water |
| Syndrome of inappropriate ADH (SIADH) | Excess ADH and retention of water in body; Results in edema, weight gain, and hyponatremia; There is low urine output, high osmolarity, electrolytes are at a lower concentration; Results in edema, weight gain, and hyponatremia due to excess water retention. |
| Type I diabetes | Pancreas failure to produce insulin; Insulin deficiency stimulates overproduction of glucagon; Glucose levels in the bloodstream rise leading to polyuria (increased urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), & polyphagia (increased hunger). |
| Type II diabetes | Cells fail to respond to insulin properly. |
| Hyperglycemia | Extreme thirst, dry mouth, weakness, headache, frequent urination, blurry vision, nausea confusion and shortness of breath. |
| Hypoglycemia | Hunger, irritability, trouble concentrating, fatigue, sweating, confusion, fast heartbeat, shaking, headache |
| Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKS) | Blood sugar levels are vey high and insulin levels are low. Glucose cant get into the cells so it builds up resulting in high blood sugar levels. |
| Hyperglycemia hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS) | Blood glucose levels over 600 Mg; Extreme thirst and dehydration; Fever over 101 |
| Causes of GERD (Gastroesophageal reflux disease) | Any condition or agent that alters closure of the lower esophageal sphincter or increases in abdominal pressure, fatty food, caffeine, large amounts of alcohol, smoking, pregnancy and anatomical features like hiatal hernia. |
| What is the role of H.pylori in peptic ulcer disease? | Promotes both gastric and duodenal ulcer formation and thrives in acidic areas. It slows down ulcer healing and can reoccur frequently, and taking it away can help ulcers heal. |
| What is pseudomembranous colitis? (C.diff) | acute inflammation and necrosis of large intestine. The intestinal lining cannot absorb well. |
| Cause of pseudomembranous colitis (C.diff) | Clostridium difficile, exposure to long term antibiotics that off set the e.coli and c.diff balance in intestine |
| Manifestations of pseudomembranous colitis (C.diff) | Foul smelling/bloody stool, abdominal pain, fever, leukocytosis, sepsis, colonic perforation. |
| Pseudomembranous colitis treatment | Stop current antibiotics, treat ischemia and contributing conditions, give oral antibiotics like metronidazole or vancomycin, fecal transplant or colectomy if severe |
| How to assess for appendicitis. | McBurney's point technique when pressing on the belly button and RLQ hip region and removing the pressure causes intense pain, indicates positive appendicitis |
| Jaundice | Green- yellow staining of tissues from increased level of bilirubin as the liver cannot metabolize extra bilirubin |
| Ascites | pathological accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity due to the loss of albumin in the liver, causing fluid to be free amongst the cells. It can cause a lot of pain in the abdomen, and it must be drained with a parenthesis |
| Hepatic encephalopathy | Neuropsychiatric syndrome from too much ammonia in the blood as the liver cannot break it down. results in dementia and psychotic symptoms common along with jerking |
| Three stages of gallstone formation. | Supersaturation, nucleation, & hypo-motility. |
| Supersaturation phase of gallstone formation. | The bile is saturated with cholesterol, causing precipitation of cholesterol. |
| Nucleation phase of gallstone formation. | The bile crystals begin to stick together and become larger stones. |
| Hypo motility phase of gallstone formation. | The bile is stasis allowing the stones to grow more. |
| Risk factors for gallstones | Prolonged fasting, rapid weight loss, pregnancy, estrogen, obesity |
| Signs and symptoms of pancreatitis. | Steady and dull pain in the center or LUQ of abdomen, severe tenderness on palpation that radiates to the back, nausea and vomiting, abdominal distention with hypoactive bowel sounds, low grade fevers |
| Excretion function of the kidney | Removal of organic waste products from body fluids |
| Elimination function of the kidney | Discharge of the waste products from the body |
| Regulation function of the kidney | Regulating blood volume, ion concentration, blood pH and nutrients |
| Signs and symptoms indicating one may have a renal disorder. | Pain in the back flank area that is felt at the CVA angle on percussion, tenderness, abnormal urinalysis findings |
| How many nephrons do the kidneys have? | 1-2 million |
| Nephron/s | They are in the kidney and helps to filter blood and remove waste products |
| What does it mean if someone has ketones in their urine? | Type 1 diabetes |
| Another name for kidney stones | Renal calculi |
| Kidney stones are made of ... | Calcium deposits and uric acid |
| Pyelonephritis | E.coli from the lower urinary tract that ascends |
| Signs and symptoms of post infectious acute glomerulonephritis | Smoky or coffee colored urine, proteinuria, edema as they cannot urinate, decreased output |
| Cause of post infectious acute glomerulonephritis | Type b hemolytic strep; follows impetigo and strep throat |
| What age group is most affected by post infectious acute glomerulonephritis? | Children in developing countries. |
| What happens if AKI does not resolve? | Chronic kidney disease (CKD) |
| What are the causes of chronic kidney disease? | Outcome of progressive and irrevocable loss of the nephrons, associated with hypertension, diabetes, recurrent pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, polycystic kidney disease, history, toxins, age. Leading from AKI |
| What are the complications one may have from chronic kidney disease? | Cardiovascular disease, hypertension, uremic syndrome, metabolic acidosis, electrolyte imbalance, malnutrition, anemia, pain, depression |
| Types of polycystic kidney disease | Autosomal recessive and Autosomal dominant |
| Complication of hypertension/cardiovascular disease from Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | Causes excess fluid in the blood, increase of plaque in the vessels, hypervolemia, the heart must work harder |
| Complication of uremic syndrome from Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | Metabolic waste can't leave, it can precipitate on the skin as frost |
| Complication of metabolic acidosis from Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | There is retention of acidic wastes that can cause hyperkalemia and arrhythmias |
| Complication of electrolyte imbalances from Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | There will be more potassium, phosphorus and magnesium retained |
| Complication of bone and mineral disorders from Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | Elevated phosphorus and PTH causes altered bone or mineral metabolism as the kidneys cannot reabsorb calcium |
| Complication of malnutrition from Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | Decreased food intake, depression, dietary limitations with what they can eat |
| Complication of anemia from Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | Lack of erythropoietin that the kidney produces to make new RBC's; Uremia shortens RBC lifespan |
| Complication of pain from Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | From disease, treatment, comorbidities |
| Complication of depression from Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | From the disease, disruption of social interactions and relationships due to long hours and days at dialysis |
| What happens if chronic kidney disease (CKD) is not treated? | End stage renal disease |
| What population are we most likely to see STRESS incontinence with? | Pregnant women |
| What populations are we most likely to see OVERFLOW incontinence with? | Clients with diabetes, MS or spinal cord injury |
| What populations are we most likely to see REFLEX incontinence with? | Clients who have a stroke, Parkinson's, spinal cord injury |
| What will you ALWAYS do for a patient with kidney disease? | Low protein diet!! |
| What can happen specifically in older adults who develop cystitis? | Delirium |
| When does endometriosis present itself in relation to menstruation? | It will start 5 to 7 days before a cycle and lasts 2-3 days after |
| What are the characteristics of a pregnant woman having hypertension/preeclampsia? | Proteinuria, weight gain, edema, arterial spasms in kidneys, brain and liver, decreased renal flow and GFR, kidneys retain salt and water. If severe: can cause convulsions, coma, renal failure, liver malfunction and hypertension |
| Purpose of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) in the body. | Helps the body keep water balance, and for more fluid retention. Prevents the body from being dehydrated, regulates thirst, and causes water to be reabsorbed. |
| Cause of hyperthyroidism | Overstimulation of the thyroid gland and autoimmune conditions like graves disease. The autoantibodies bind and stimulate TSH receptors |
| Cause of hypothyroidism | Cells attacking the thyroid gland or surgical removal of tissues, iodine deficiency. |
Created by:
GChaos95
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