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UTSW Cell Bio 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the 7 air-conducting components of the respiratory system? | Nasal Cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, & bronchioles |
| What 3 components of the respiratory system participate in gas exchange? | alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli |
| Which part of the respiratory system is lined with stratified squamous epithelial cells? | vocal cords |
| What part of the respiratory system is lined with pseudo-stratified ciliated epithelium? | nasal cavity (except air entrance), pharynx & larynx (except vocal cords), trachea |
| What part of the respiratory system is lined with cuboidal epithelium? | bronchioles (incl. terminal) |
| What part of the respiratory system is lined with columnar epithelium? | primary bronchi |
| Which part of the respiratory system is lined with squamous epithelial cells? | nasal cavity (air enters), alveoli |
| How does the organization of cartilage change from trachea to bronchi? | Trachea cartilage is c-chaped (12-20) while bronchi cartilage are islands or plates |
| How does the organization of cartilage change from bronchi to bronchioles? | Bronchi have cartilage plates & bronchioles don't have cartilage at all |
| What are 3 defining characteristics of type II respiratory system cells? | frothy cytoplasm (vacuolated), pyramidal, sit in corner of alveoli, store surfactant in lamellar bodies |
| What does the thinnest part of the alveolus consist of? | surfactant, Type I cell + basal lamina, enothelial cell + basal lamina |
| Does diameter increase as air flows down air-conducting portion of respiratory system? | yes |
| Does air flow increase as it moves down the conductin portion of the respiratory system? | no |
| What lines the outer surface of the lung (incl. cell type)? | visceral pleura (mesothelial cells) |
| What is the purpose of the conchae in the nasal cavity? | warms air & precipates particulates in air by inc. S.A. & creating air eddies |
| What are the 2 types of nasal cavity epithelium? | squamous & pseudo-stratified ciliated (+goblet cells) |
| What covers the upper 1/3 to 2/3 of nasal cavity? | olfactory sensing system |
| What 3 cell types make up the nasal cavity modified ciliated epithelium? | supporting/sustentacular cells, olfactory bulb cells, basal cells |
| What is on the dendritic (apical) surface of olfactory bulb cells? | 2 modified cilia extending for microns |
| What does the basal surface of the olfactory bulb cell form? | an axon that projects thru connective tissue to form olfactory nerve |
| What type of receptors do olfactory bulb cilia contain? | olfactory receptors that are G-protein coupled |
| Which of the nasal cavity epithelium cell types are progenitor cells? | Basal cells of the olfactory sensing system |
| What type of glands secrete coating apically in the nasal cavity? | serous (in lamina propria) |
| Why does the epithelial cell type change in the vocal cords? | high rate of air flow differentiates ciliated cells to non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium |
| Where in the respiratory system is true stratified ciliated epithelium seen? | vocal cords |
| What type of muscle is in the vocal cords? | skeletal |
| What makes up the posterior of the trachea? | smooth muscle & fibroelastic tissue |
| What is the approx. diameter & length of the trachea? | 2.5 cm wide & 10 cm long |
| What are the 4 layers of the trachea? | mucosa (epithelium & lamina propria), submucosa, cartilage (or musccle bridge), adventitia |
| What separates the lamina propria & submucosa in the trachea? | elastic fibers |
| What type of glands are in the trachea submucosa? | mixed with predominantly mucus acini(esp. in muscle bridge) |
| Which direction do trachea cilia beat towards? | larynx |
| Why does the trachea have goblet cells? | to make mucus for protection & to expel particulates |
| What type of trachea cell acts as a receptor & connects to sympathetic afferent nerve? | brush cell |
| What is the enteroendocrine cell in the trachea called? | small granule cell |
| What is the progenitor cell in the trachea? | basal |
| What defines the dividing line between the mucosa & submucosa in the trachea? | elastic membrane |
| What is unusual about the trachea basement membrane? | it's very thick |
| What is common in the basement membrane & lamina propria of the trachea? | nodular lymphatic tissue |
| What are the first branches off the trachea? | left & right primary bronchi |
| Why are there fewer bronchial branches on the left? | the heart takes up space |
| What is the smalled unit in a respiratory lobule? | acinus |
| What does a respiratory acinus consist of? | single alveolar duct & associated alveoli |
| What are the 4 branches of the bronchial tree? | primary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, and respiratory bronchioles |
| Which branches of the bronchial tree have abundant smooth muscle? | primary bronchi & bronchioles |
| Which branch of the bronchial tree has submucosal glands? | primary bronchi |
| How is smooth muscle organized in the primary bronchi? | spiral bands running in oppposite directions |
| Which part of the bronchial tree is a prime target for respiratory disorders? | primary bronchi smooth muscle b/c it keeps airway open |
| At which part of the bronchial tree do Clara cells appear? | bronchioles |
| Where in the bronchial tree is there a transition in epithelium incl. fluid producing cells? | bronchioles (reduction in fluid producing cells) |
| Where in the bronchial tree does smooth muscle become thinner? | terminal bronchioles |
| Which 2 parts of the respiratory system have Clara cells? | bronchioles & terminal bronchioles |
| Where in the respiratory system does the lumen become irregular? | terminal bronchioles |
| Where in the bronchial tree do goblet cells disappear? | terminal bronchioles |
| What is the distinguishing feature of respiratory bronchioles? | thin-walled outpocketings (alveoli) |
| What separates alveoli? | interalveolar septum |
| Where are alveolar capillaries located? | very thin connective tissue |
| What are the 6 types of alveolar cells? | Type I, Type II, smooth muscle, endothelial, fibroblasts, macrophages |
| What are 3 characteristics of alveolar Type I cells? | squamous epithelial, thin nucleus, cytoplasm difficult to see, specializef for air conduction btwn alveolus & blood |
| What is surfactant made of? | lipoprotein mix with much dipalmitoyl lecithin |
| What is the purpose of Clara cells? | surfactant production |
| Where is surfactant stored? | Lamellar bodies in type II cells |
| What are the liver's 6 main functions? | produces bile, takes in products of digestion, clearing house for RBCs, detox, regulates blood glucose, produces serum albumin & blood clotting factors |
| What are the liver parenchymal cells called? | hepatocytes |
| What is the primary source of blood to the liver? | hepatic portal vein (hepatic artery is 2nd) |
| Which hepatocyte functions are endocrine? | release of albumin, glucose, & clotting proteins (fibrinogen, prothrombin) into blood |
| Which hepatocyte functions are exocrine? | release of bile into ducts (via canaliculi) |
| How does the hepatocyte structure allow for endo & exocrine function? | polarization of endo & exo function on different cell sides, arranged in plates (blood bath outside, bile canaliculi at cell-cell interactions) |
| What is the liver capsule made of? | dense connective tissue (covered by mesothelial cells) |
| What makes up the stucture of the liver blood supply? | portal vein (75%), hepatic artery (25%), sinusoids, central vein |
| What is the simplest functional unit of the liver? | lobule |
| What is at the center of a liver lobule? | central vein |
| What type of epithelium lines the liver lobule central vein? | simple squamous |
| What radiates from the liver lobule central vein? | plates of hepatocytes |
| What defines the edge of classic lobule? | portal triad (portal veins, hepatic arteries, bile ducts) |
| Which way does blood flow in the liver lobule? | toward the central vein |
| Which way does bile flow in the liver lobule? | toward portal triads |
| Where in the liver lobule is blood least oxgenated & contains highest concentration of hepatocyte secretions? | closest to the central vein |
| What type of epithelial cells line bile ducts in portal triads? | cholangiocytes |
| What is another name for portal triad? | portal radical |
| What besides portal vein, hepatic artery, and bile duct is in a portal triad? | lymphatic vessels, connective tissue, nerve |
| What type of endothelium lines liver sinusoids? | thin discontinuous & fenestrated (does not allow RBCs thru thus creating lymph) |
| What is the area between the thin veil of endothelial cytoplasm & a hepatocyte called? | Space of Disse |
| Where is 50% of the heart's lymph produced? | Space of Disse |
| What is in the Space of Disse? | connective tissue & microvilli of hepatocytes |
| What highly phagocytic cells stretch across the liver sinusoid lumen? | Kupffner |
| What is the function of Kupffer cells? | ingest particulate material (e.g. old RBS, bacteria) in liver sinusoids |
| What is the major site of vitamin A storage? | Hepatic stellate cells |
| Where are hepatic stellate cells located? | Space of Disse |
| Which cells can contribute to liver fibrosis & how? | Hepatic stellate cells; by producing Type I collagen |
| Where does detox occur in the liver? | smooth ER of hepatocytes |
| What cell type aids in the removal of bilirubin? | hepatocyte |
| How long does human liver regeneration take after a partial hepatectomy? | 2-3 months |
| What is the mechanism for liver regeneration? | compensatory hyperplasia (remain lobes inc. via cell proliferation) |
| What 2 cell types can proliferate to form hepatocytes? | hepatocytes & liver stem cells |
| Where do liver endothelial & Kupffer cells originate? | bone marrow |
| What is the order of blood flow in the liver from the central vein? | hepatic vein, vena cava, heart |
| What is the order of bile flow? | canaliculi, bile duct, common hepatic duct, cystic duct, gall bladder, cystic duct, common bile duct, ampulla of Vater, duodenum |
| What happens to bile flow if the sphincter of Oddi around the ampulla is closed? | bile is forced back up the common bile duct into the cystic duct then into the gall bladder |
| Where is bile stored & concentrated? | gall bladder |
| What is pumped out of the basal end of gall bladder epithelial cells to help concentrate bile? | Na+ |
| How does the gall bladder accomodate bile storage? | the wall contains folds |
| What are the 3 layers of the gall bladder wall? | smooth muscle, loose connective tissue, outer serosal layer |
| What do the plasma cells in the gall bladder wall connective tissue secrete? | IgA antibodies |
| Which has more smooth muscle: hepatic or cystic duct? | cystic duct |
| What feature of the cystic duct helps regulate flow into & out of the gall bladder? | spiral valves |
| What are the 2 primary functions of the pancreas? | secretion of digestive enzymes (acinar cells - exocrine) & Release of glucose regulating hormones (islets of Langerhans - endocrine) |
| What are the histologically distinct areas of the pancreas? | acinar cells & islets of Langerhans |
| What do the pancreatic acinar cells secrete? | hydrolytic enzymes (proteases, lipases, nucleases, amylases, etc) |
| What is the first cell of the intercalated pancreatic duct called? | centroacinar |
| What are the ducts leading from the pancreatic acinus called? | intercalated |
| What is the order of pancreatic enzyme flow? | acinus lumen, intercalated duct, larger collecting ducts in/btwn lobules, pancreatic duct |
| What are the 3 major salivary glands? | parotid, submandibular, sublingual |
| What are the 2 types of salivary secretory cells? | mucous & serous |
| What do salivary glands secrete? | IgA, water, electrolytes, digestive enzymes |
| What salivary secretory cells have nuclei flat against the base? | mucous (frothy too) |
| What salivary secretory cells have intensely staining secretory granules? | serous |
| What are mixed acini? | contain both serous & mucous cells |
| What are serous demilunes? | serous cells near edge of salivary mixed acinus forming a crescent |
| What collects & modifies fluid from salivary intercalated ducts? | striated ducts |
| What makes striated ducts appear striated? | basal ends are highly infolded with lots of mitochondria (also inc. S.A. & facilitates fluid mod) |
| What cell is stimulated neuronally to contract & thus promote acinus secretion? | myoepithelial |
| Where are myoepithelial cells located? | above the basement membrane in direct contact with acinar cells |
| What type of visual system do humans have? | stereoscopic |
| What range of wavelengths can the human eye detect? | 400 nm (blue) to 700 nm (red) |
| What are the 3 layers of the wall of the eye (from outside in)? | corneoscleral, choroid (uvea), retina |
| What type of connective tissue makes up the sclera? | dense |
| What is the most refractile part of the eye? | cornea |
| What does most of the focusing of images on the retina? | cornea |
| What contains most of the eye's vasculature? | choroid |
| What part of the eye wall is considered to be part of the brain/CNS? | retina |
| Where are photosensitive neurons located in the eye? | retina |
| What are the 3 major structures of the eye that light passes through? | cornea, lens, & retina |
| What are the 4 functions of the cornea? | protection, structural support, filtration of undesirable wavelengths, focus image on retina |
| What are the 5 layers of the cornea? | epithelium, bowman's membrane, stroma, descemet's membrane, corneal endothelium |
| What are 3 notable properties of the cornea? | no blood vessels/pigments, inflammation from limbus, lots of free nerve endings |
| How does corneal epithelium differ from corneal endothelium? | Both are squamous, but epithelium is stratified & endothelium is simple |
| What type of junctions connect cells in the corneal endothelium? | tight (direct contact with aqueous humor) |
| What forms Bowman's membrane? | randomly arranged collagen fibrils formed by stroma cells |
| What occupies most of the thickness of the cornea? | stroma |
| How are corneal stroma cells organized? | alternating layers of keratocytes (mod. fibroblasts) & orthogonally arrayed collagen fibrils |
| What is corneal stroma continuous with? | sclera |
| What is a key property of stroma for corneal function? | it is transparent & avascular connective tissue |
| Whatis the basal lamina of the corneal endothelium called? | descemet's membrane (collagen fibrils) |
| What is the purpose of descemet's membrane? | acts as barrier to diffusion of macromolecules between stroma & anterior chamber of eye |
| What is myopia (near-sightedness) caused by? | cornea too far from retina |
| What causes astigmatism? | aspherical cornea can't focus light sharply on retina |
| What causes hyperopia (far-sightedness)? | cornea to near retina |
| What are 4 types of refractive corenal surgery? | radial keratotomy, astigmatic keratotomy, photorefractive kerotomy, laser assisted in-situ keratomileusis |
| Which 2 surgeries can correct all 3 common vision defects? | PRK & LASIK |
| What is the key difference between PRK & LASIK? | PRK corrects by removing part o the corneal epithelium while LASIK corrects by removing part of the stroma |
| What does RK correct? | myopia |
| Where are incisions made for RK & for AK? | RK: near corneal center; AK: steepest part of cornea |
| What marks the limbus region of the eye? | disappearance of Bowman's membrane & presccence of vasculature in stroma at the junction of sclera & cornea |
| How does conjunctiva epithelium differ from that of cornea or limbus? | prescence of goblet cells |
| What region is covered by conjunctiva? | from inner surface of eyelids to outside edge of cornea |
| What is the function of the lens? | aid in focusing of nearby objects on retina |
| What is the lens capsule? | basal lamina of Type 4 collagen |
| What completely surrounds the lens? | the capsule |
| What is the lens capsule composed of? | collagen fibrils & proteoglycans |
| Where are cuboidal cells located on the lens? | anterior surface |
| What supports the lens? | zonules |
| What are zonules made of? | elastic microfibril/fibrillin |
| What is found throughout the body of the lens? | flattened lens fibers |
| What type of junction occurs between lens fiber cells? | gap |
| What is unique about the lens fiber cells? | cell extends entire width of lens, postmitotic, anuclear |
| What are 2 pathologies of the lens? | presbyopia (loss of len elasticity) & cataracts (loss of lens transparency) |
| What are the 3 functions of the retina? | photoreception of images, transmission of images to brain, prevent backscatter of light |
| What are the 9 major layers of the retina? | pigmented epithelium (next to choroid), photoreceptor layer (rod & cones), outer limiting membrane, outer nuclear layer, outer plexiform layer, inner nuclear layer, inner plexiform laye, ganglion cell layer, nerve fiber layer |
| What part of the retina has a layer of tight junctions between photoreceptor neurons & Muller glial cells? | outer limiting membrane |
| What retinal layer contains cell bodies & nuclei of photoreceptor neurons? | outer nuclear layer |
| What retinal layer contains axons of photoreceptor cells along with processes of bipolar, horizontal, and amacrine cells? | outer plexiform layer |
| What retinal layer contains cells bodies of bipolar, horizontal, & amacrine cells? | inner nuclear layer |
| What retinal layer contains dendrites of ganglion cells along with processes of bipolar, horizontal, and amacrine cells? | inner plexiform layer |
| What retinal layer contains ganglion cell neuron bodies & axons? | ganglion cell layer |
| Where do ganglion cell axons exit the eye? | optic nerve |
| What retinal layer contains only axons of the ganglion cells? | innermost (nerve fiber) layer |
| What non-neuronal cells prvent backscattering of light & maintain functionality of photoreceptor cells? | pigmented epithelium |
| What vitamin deficiency can lead to blindness? | Vitamin A |
| Which photoreceptor is for vision in low light? | rods |
| Which photoreceptor is not present on the fovea? | rods |
| What is the light sensitive pigment for rods? | rhodopsin |
| What is the light-sensitive co-factor for opsin? | 11-cis-retinal (derived from Vit A) |
| What type of receptors are rhodopsins? | G-protein-coupled |
| Where are cones most abundant in the eye? | fovea |
| What is the purpose of cones? | color vision |
| What is iodopsin? | the light sensitive pigment for cones |
| How many varieties of iodopsin are there? | 3 (for red, blue, and green) |
| What is the macula lutea? | yellow pigmented zone surrounding fovea |
| Where is visual acuity greatest in the eye? | fovea |
| Where is the highest density of photoreceptors in the eye? | fovea (also devoid of blood vessels) |
| What creates the eye's "blind spot" | optic disc - where optic nerve joins the retina |
| What are the 3 key parts of the uvea/choroid? | iris, ciliary body, outflow tract |
| Which muscles are arranged radially in the iris? | dilator pupillae muscles |
| Which muscles are arranged circumferentially near the pupil? | contrictor pupillae muscles |
| What is the layer of blue pigmented cells that blocks light in the iris called? | posterior epithelium |
| What regulates the amount of light to the retina? | iris |
| What epithelial layer helps form the dilator pupillae muscles? | anterior pigment myo-epithelial layer (also has melanin) |
| What determines eye color? | melanocytes in the iris' highly vascularized stroma which also has fibroblasts |
| Is the anterior surface of the iris lined with epithelial cells? | no |
| What type of muscle is in the inner wall of the ciliary body? | smooth |
| What is the structure of the ciliary body? | disk-shaped, hollow core lined by processes |
| How many layers of epithelial cells are in the ciliary body & how are they arranged? | 2 with apical ends facing each other |
| Which of the ciliary body epithelial layers is not pigmented? | inner layer |
| Which ciliary epithelial layer is pigmented & continuous with the pigmented epithelial cells of the iris? | outer layer |
| Is ciliary body stroma highly vascularized? | yes |
| How do the circumferential ciliary muscles allow the lens to focus on nearby objects? | by contracting to loosen tension on the zonules holding the lens, thus allowing the lens to become thicker |
| What produces aqueous humor? | ciliary processes (inner layer of epithelium) |
| How does the composition of aqueous humor relate to that of plasma? | it is plasma derived but with more pyruvic & lactic acids |
| Why is it necessary for aqueous humor to be pumped into the posterior chamber? | because fluid pressure in the ciliary processes is 13 mmHg versus 20 mm Hg in the posterior/anterior chamber |
| What blocks stray light in the ciliary body? | pigmented region |
| How does aqueous humor exit the anteroir chamber? | through the trabecular meshwork |
| Where is the trabecular meshwork located? | encircles the eye near the junction of iris & limbus |
| What lines the luminal space of the trabecular meshwork? | leaky epithelium |
| What is the Canal of Schlemm? | a vein which leads the aqueous humor from the trabecular meshwork to the episcleral veins & general circulation |
| What causes glaucoma? | build of fluid pressure in the eye due to inbalance of aqueous humor outflow |
| What does the kidney cortex consist of? | renal corpuscles (granular), convoluted & straight tubules, collecting tubules, vascular supply |
| What are medullary rays? | aggregates of straight & straight collecting tubules that create striations from the cortex to the medulla |
| What does the kidney medulla consist of? | renal pyramids & renal columns |
| What separates the pyramids of the kidney medulla? | cortical or renal columns of Bertin |
| How many lobes to human kidneys have? | 6-12 |
| What makes up a kidney lobe? | renal pyramid, cortical region above it, 1/2 of each of the cortical coumns beside it |
| What is the functional filtration unit of the kidney? | nephron |
| What are the 9 components of the nephron in order of filtration? | renal corpuscle (incl glomerulus/Bowman's capsule), proximal convoluted tubule, proximal straight tubule, descending thin limb, ascending thin limb, thick ascending limb (distal straight tube), macula densa, distal convoluted tubule, collecting tubule |
| Where is the macula densa located? | adjacent to the vascular pole of the glomerulus, last section of thick ascending limb |
| Which nephrons are most important in the concentration of urine? | juxtamedullary nephrons |
| Where are juxtamedullary nephrons' renal corpuscles located? | near the inner part of the cortex with long loops of henle running deep in the medulla |
| Where are the cortical/subcapsular nephrons located? | renal corpuscles located in outer part of cortex with short loops of henle that just enter the medulla |
| Which nephrons filter but don't concentrate urine? | cortical/subcapsular nephrons |
| Where does filtration occur in the kidney? | renal corpuscle/glomerulus |
| What are the 4 components of the renal corpuscle? | glomerulus, afferent & efferent arterioles, and Bowman's capsule |
| What is the region of the renal corpuscle were arterioles enter & exit called? | vascular pole |
| What makes up Bowman's capsule? | the epithelial cells that cover the glomerular capillaries & line the wall of the renal corpuscle |
| What are the squamous cells lining the renal corpuscle called? | parietal layer |
| What are the specialized cells covering the glomerular capillaries called? | visceral layer/podocytes |
| What prevents blood cells from entering glomerulus filtrate? | fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillaries |
| What acts as a physical barrier & ion selective filter in the glomerulus? | glomerular basement membrane |
| What does the glomerular basement membrane (basal lamina) represent? | a fusion of the endothelial basement membrane & the basement membrane of the podocytes |
| What are the 3 layers of the glomerular basement membrane from capillary endothelium out? | lamina lucida interna, lamina densa, lamina lucida externa |
| Which layer of the glomerular basement membrane is rich in polyanions that act to prevent loss of neg. charged molecules from blood? | lamina lucida interna |
| What is the fused portion of the glomerular basement membrane called? | lamina densa |
| Which glomerular basement membrane layer prevets loss of proteins > 70 kd & is made of Type 4 collagen? | lamina densa |
| Which layer of the glomerular basement membrane prevents neg. charged molecules (e.g. albumin) from entering filtrate? | lamina lucida externa |
| What are podocyte processes called? | pedicels |
| What part of podocytes are in contact with the glomerular basement membrane? | pedicels |
| What acts as the final filtration barrier in a glomerulus? | the gaps between pedicels called filtration slits |
| What is the mesangium made up of? | mesangial cells & mesangial extracellular matrix |
| What is the purpose of mesangial cells? | phagocytosis of trapped residues & aggregate proteins from b.m., support for podocytes & the vascular pole |
| Where is the mesangium located? | inside the glomerular basement membrane |
| What is the most common source of kidney disease? | glomerular disorders |
| What is proteinuria? | prescence of protein in urine due to build up of anti-bodies in the glomerular filtration apparatus leading to partial breakdown |
| Which tubule reabsorbs 65% of primary filtrate? | proximal tubules |
| How are small proteins reabsorbed in the proximal tubule? | endocytosis |
| What aspects of the proximal tubule cell facilitate reabsorption? | brush border (inc. SA), infolding of basal processes, basal striations (elongated mitochondria) |
| Where do basal striations start to decrease in the proximal tubule? | proximal straight tubules |
| What are other names for the proximal straight tubule? | beginning of loops of henle/thick descending loop of henle |
| What part of the loop of henle is permeable to water? | descending part |
| What type of epithelium is in the thin limb of henle's loop? | simple squamous |
| What helps create & maintain the high osmolarity in the medullary interstitium? | juxtamedullary nephron loops of henle |
| Where in the loop of henle does the filtrate become hypertonic? | thin descending limb |
| What tubules are inpermeable to water in henle's loop? | ascending (thick & thin) limbs |
| Where in the loop of henle does the filtrate become hypotonic? | thin ascending limb (passive diffusion of salts) & thick ascending limb (active transport of salt) |
| What makes up the juxtaglomerular apparatus? | afferent & efferent arterioles, macula densa, juxtagomerular cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells |
| Where is the macula densa located? | the last section of the thick ascending limb where it returns to the glomerulus |
| What does the macula densa look like? | epithelial cells that thicken & become taller with more prominent nuclei than surrounding cells |
| What does the macula densa regulate? | senses the osmolarity of the filtrate & controls the release of renin from juxtaglomerular cells |
| What is another name for juxtaglomerular cells? | granular cells |
| What are juxtaglomerular cells? | modified smooth muscle cells of the afferent arteriole that regulate blood pressure & filtrate osmolarity by secreting renin (in granules - PAS stain) |
| What type of epithelium lines the distal convoluted tubule? | simple cuboidal |
| Why is does the DCT lack a brush border? | because most pumping done in proximal tubule, so less SA required |
| What steroid controls sodium reabsorption in the DCT? | aldosterone (increases Na reabsorption) |
| What is renovascular hypertension? | whn vascular disease decreases blood flow to kidney activating JG cells to increase renin & elevate BP |
| Where are collecting tubules found? | medullary ray |
| Where are collecting ducts (ducts of Bellini) found? | medulla |
| What transports urine to the minor calyx? | collecting ducts |
| What are the 2 key functions of collecting tubules & ducts? | create high osmolarity in inner medullary region by contirbuting urea & control conc. of urine |
| What hormone controls the collecting duct/tubule epithelium permeability to water? | ADH/AVP (argine vasopressin) |
| What secretes ADH? | posterior pituitary |
| What is the production of large amounts of hypotonic urine associated with? | diabetes insipidus, from lack of ADH |
| What are the 2 types of efferent arterioles? | those draining cortical nephrons & those draining glomeruli of juxtamedullary nephrons |
| What are the peritubular capillaries that descend into the mdeulla called? | vasa recta |
| What do the peritubular capillaries in the cortex surround? | uriniferous tubules |
| What do efferent arterioles from the cortical glomeruli lead into? | peritubular capillary network |
| What is the minor calyx part of? | papilla (funnel shaped chamber) |
| What is the arrangement of muscle layers in the ureter? | inner longitudinal, outer circular (w/another longitudinal outside in some areas) |
| What parts of the urinary system have transitional epithelium? | calyces, pelvis, ureter, and bladder |
| How many openings in the bladder? | 2 for ureters, 1 for urethra |
| What are the layers of the bladder? | epithelium, lamina propria, smooth muscle, (outer circ., inner long.) |
| What is the main regulator of most endocrine glands? | hypothalamus |
| Where is the hypothalamus? | immed. above pituitary in brain |
| What is the developmental origin of the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)? | Rathke's pouch |
| What are the 3 parts of the anterior pituitary? | pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis |
| What does the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) arise from embryonically? | infundibulum |
| What are the components of the posterior pituitary? | pars nervosa (nerve endings) & infundibulum (axons) |
| What produces alpha-MSG during fetal development? | pars intermedia |
| Where are hyposphyseal portal veins? | pars tuberalis (also has chromophils & chromophobes) |
| What type of cells are in the pars distalis? | chromophils (basophils & acidophils) - primary hormone secreting cells, chromophobes |
| What are the 2 acidophilic cell types in the anterior pituitary? | somatotropes & mammotropes/lactotrophs |
| What are the 3 basophilic cell types in the anterior pituitary? | corticotropes, gonadotropes, thyrotropes |
| What cell type secretes growth hormone? | somototropes |
| What is the target tissue for somatotropes? | liver to produce IGF-I |
| What produces ACTH (adrenocorticotropin)? | corticotropes to reg. adrenal cortisol prod. |
| What produces FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) & LH (luteinizing hormone)? | gonadotropes |
| What produces TSH? | thyrotropes (reg. thyroid) |
| How does the hypothalamus control the pituitary? | via hypophyseal blood supply |
| Does most the anterior lobe of hypophysis have direct arterial supply? | no |
| What do the superior hypophyseal arteries supply? | pars tuberalis, median eminence, and infundibular stem |
| What connects the hypothalamus & pituitary (posterior)? | pituitary stalk |
| What makes up the hypophyseal portal system & what is its function? | capillary plexus of the median eminence & pituitary stalk; carries secretions from the hypothalamic nerves to the anterior pituitary |
| What are 3 functional adenomas of the pituitary? | Cushing's (ACTH too high), acromegaly (too much somatotrophes), goiters (TSH) |
| What is the only cell sepcific to the posterior pituitary? | pituicyte |
| Where are herring bodies? | posterior pituitary |
| Where are nerves that enter the infundibulum & pars nervosa from? | supraoptic & paraventricular nuceli of hypothalamus |
| Where is oxytocin stored? | herring bodies |
| Where is oxytocin produced? | cell bodies of neurons in the supraoptic & paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus |
| What does oxytocin stimulate? | contraction of myoepithelial cells in mammary glands & contraction of uterus smooth muscle |
| Where is ADH stored? | Herring bodies |
| What is the purpose of the pineal gland? | prod. melatonin to relate light to endocrine activity (stim. by low light) |
| What are the 2 parenchymal cell types in pineal gland? | pinealocytes (larger, melatonin) & interstial/glial cells (5%) |
| What is brain sand? | corpora arenacea derived from precipitation of Ca & Mg in the pineal gland |
| Where is the thyroid? | bi-lobed in neck anterolateral to larynx & upper trachea |
| What 2 key hormones does the thyroid produce? | thyroxine (T4) & tri-iodothyronine (T3) - reg. cell & tissue metabolism stim. by TSH; Calcitonin (reg. blood Ca levels) |
| What do follicular cells in the thyroid secerete? | T3 & T4 |
| What are thyroid follicles filled with? | colloid (contains thyroglobulin - T3/4 precursor) |
| What is the epithelium type of thyroid follicles? | simple cuboidal with tight junctions |
| How is T4 release indicated? | scalloped appearance in peripheral colloid indicating phagocytosis of colloid |
| What type of thyroid cells produce calcitonin? | parafollicular (in follicle basal lamina, lowers Ca in blood) |
| WHat are 2 diseases of the thyroid? | Grave's - too much TSH, enlarged thyroid & Simple goiter (iodne insufficiency) |
| What are the epithelium cells of the parathyroid? | chief (secrete PTH, central nucleus, inc. Ca & phosphate in blood) & oxyphil |
| What are the 3 zones of the adrenal cortex? | zona glomerulosa (prod. aldosterone - salt reg.), zona fasciculata (cortisol - carb. met., ACTH); zona reticularis (DHEA-sulfate, lipofuscin, ACTH) |
| What secretes catecholamines in the adrenal gland? | adrenal medulla |
| What are chromaffin cells? | adrenal medullary cells (mod. postganglionic neuronal celss with secretory function) |
| What do chromaffin cells with only large dense core granules secrete? | NE |
| What do the chromaffin cells with smaller, more homogenous, and less dense granules secrete? | E |
| Why does the adrenal medulla produce more adrenaline? | glocucorticoids in cortex convert NE to E in medullary cells |
| What are 2 diseases of the adrenal gland? | Addison's (dec. adrenocortical hormones - autoimmune) & Cushing's (too much ACTH & too much cortisol) |
| What are the 3 major cell types of the islets of Langerhans? | alpha (20% - secrete glucagon - periphery), delta (10% - interspersed - secrete somatostatin - inhibits a & b cells), beta cells (60-70% - secrete insulin, center) |
| What are the 3 characteristics of acquired immunity? | specificity, adaptive, memory |
| What are the 2 major types of lymphocytes? | B & T cells |
| What are immunocompetent lymphocytes that have never encountered their antigen | naive cells |
| What is the difference between B & T cells? | B carry out humoral immunity (with antibodies) & T react to cell-bound (not free) antigens |
| What do B cells differentiate into when activated? | plasma cells that produce antibodies |
| What are antibodies? | large glycoproteins that bind antigens |
| What are the 2 classes of antibodies? | IgA (mucosal env) & IgE (bind mast cells = degranulation) |
| What are the major types of activated T cells? | cytotoxic T (Tc), Helper T (Th), Regulatory T (Treg) |
| What do Tc cells do? | kill target cells directly (virus) |
| What do Th cells do? | secrete cytokines (paracrine) - recruit other cells. Th1 (promote Tc activation & recruit macrophages) inflammation. Th2 - activate B cells |
| What to Treg cells do? | inhibits immune response with cytokines |
| Where is activation phase? | lymphoid organs |
| What presents antigen to naive T cells? | APC cells (dendritic - related to macrophages) |
| Where are APC cells present? | connective tissue, stratified epithelium (skin) |
| Where does lymphocyte activation occur? | lymphoid tissue (APCs abundant here) |
| What are the secondary lymphoid organs? | activation of response to antigen (lymph nodes, spleen, mucosal lymphoid tissue MALT) |
| What are primary lymphoid organs? | where naive B & T cells created (bone marrow & thymus) |
| Where does lymphopoiesis occur? | secondary lymphoid organs |
| How do lymphocytes maximize chance of encountering specific antigen? | random circulation in secondary lymph organs |
| How does lymph flow thru lymph nodes? | many afferent lymphs, subcapsular sinus, medullary sinus, 1 efferent lymphatic |
| What is the lymph node capsule? | dense type I collagen (so is trabecula) |
| What makes up lymph node stroma? | type III collagen reticular fibers with reticular cells (except blood vessels) |
| Where does antigen presentation occur in the lymph node? | cortex |
| What are secondary follicles in lymph nodes? | those with germinal center where B cell activation in progress |
| What dominates the parafollicular area of lymph nodes? | T cells (APCs are here too) |
| Where does filtration of lymph occur in lymph nodes? | medullary cords |
| What lines medullary sinus? | plump endothelial cells - discontinous |
| What functions as a baffle to lymph flow in the lymph node? | reticular fibers |
| What filters lymph? | macrophages |
| How do lymphocytes in the blood enter lymph nodes? | post capillary (HEV) in deep cortex |
| How do mucosal lymphoid tissues differ from lymph node tissue? | no medulla, no afferent lymphatics (antigens ener from mucosal lumen), M cells take up & transport antigens |
| Where do plasma cells mature? | medullary cords or connective tissue (migration pattern determined by changes in receptor expression during activation) |
| Where do effector T-cells go? | inflammed peripheral tissues |
| What are the major tissue areas of spleen? | red (most) & white pulp (basophilic) |
| What creates the largest lymphoid organ? | white pulp |
| What are the functions of red pulp? | filtration, converts reticuloytes to erythrocytes, removes old erythrocytes |
| What is the perifollicular zone in the spleen? | edge of red pulp next to white pulp |
| How does spleen differ from lymph nodes? | filters blood not lymph, no afferent lymphatics |
| What is unique about the spleen's vascular arrangement? | open circulation: capillaries to extravascular space to venous sinuses |
| What does every area of white pulp have? | central artery (branch from large trabecular arteries) displaced by B cells/follicles |
| What are PALS? | periarterial lymphatic sheath containing primarily T cells & non-follicular |
| Where does extravasation of blood occur in spleen? | red pulp |
| What are Billroth's strands (splenic cords)? | reticular connective tissue between sinuses |
| What are penicillar arterioles? | branches of the central artery in the spleen nearthe perifollicular zone |
| Does the perifollicular zone have sinuses? | no |
| What is unusual about the venous sinuses in the spleen? | endothelium are long & plump & oriented parallel to vessel's axis. Slits exist between celss that blood cells have to crawl through to get to vessel lumen (macrophages hang out here) |
| What are functions of red pulp? | filtration (Billroth), cell testing (Billroth - iron retrieved), cell shape (squeeze thru?) |
| Where do all lymphocytes originate? | bone marrow, then T cells go to Thymus & B cells stay in bone marrow |
| Where is the thymus? | anterior to great vessels in superior mediastinum (2 lobes) |
| What makes up thymus? | thymocytes - outer cortex darker than medulla (also lots of mast cells) |
| What forms support for thymus? | septa & highly stellate epithelial cells (epi. reticular cells - not type 3 collagen - needed for T cell dev) |
| What are the 2 functional compartments of the thymus? | cortex & medulla |
| What are the key functions of the thymus cortex? | cortex (T-cell prod. macrophages, precursors in outer cortex, then prolif & diff. as pass thru cortex, antigen receptor dev, selection, no afferent lymphatics, blood thymus barrier) |
| What are the key functions of the thymus medulla? | medulla (more epi. ret. cells, mature T leave by post cap venules or eff. lymphatics, contains Hassall's corpuscles |
| What is the blood-thymus barrier? | occluding junctions (zonnula occludens - tight) between endothelial cells wrapped by epi. retic. cells with occluding junctions |
| What are Hassall's corpuscles? | round epithelial cysts in thymus medulla |
| What is the mediastinum testis? | composed if tunica albuginea contains rete testis |
| What represents the stem cells for spermatogenesis? | Type A spermatogonia (1. Type A dark, 2. Type A pale) - stimulated by testerone - retain cytoplasmic bridges |
| What do Type A spermatogonia differentiate into? | Type B which then give rise to spermatocytes |
| Where does meiosis I occur for sperm? | between primary (1) & secondary spermatocyte (2) |
| Where does meiosis II occur for sperm? | between secondary spermatocyte (2) & spermatid (4) |
| What are the phases of spematogenesis? | golgi (hydrolytic enzymes in RER, trans golgi, anterior pole), cap (acrosomal vesicle over anterior half of nucleus), acrosome phase (spermatid head embeds in sertoli cells twd lamina propria), maturation phase (excess cytoplasm released) |
| What is essential for penetration of the ovum zona pellucida? | acrosomal cap hyaluronidase, neuraminidase, acid phosphatase, acrosin |
| What constitutes the true epithelium fr the seminiferous epithelium? | sertoli cells |
| When is spermatogenesis initiated? | puberty |
| What are Sertoli endocrine functions? | release of Mullerian inhibiting hormone = regression of female repro structs & secrete inhibin to reg. FSH |
| What are Sertoli exocrine functions | secrete fluid that moves sperm into intratesticular ducts |
| Where are Leydig cells? | interstium of seminiferous tubules |
| What are characteristics of Leydig cell? | steroid producing (testerone) in smooth ER & mitochondira (tubulo-christae) |
| What regulates Leydig cells? | LH |
| What lines tubuli recti? | sertoli cells |
| What are rete testis epithelium like? | simple cuboidal with microvilli & single apical cilium |
| What do the efferent ductules epithelium form? | scallops |
| What do efferent ductules do? | concentrate sperm |
| What regulates efferent ductules sperm conc.? | estrogen via Na reasborption |
| Where do sperm mature? | ductus epididymus (motility) |
| What characterizes the principal cells in psedostratified epithelium in ductus epididymus? | stereocilia |
| What do principal cells do in the ductus epididymus? | secrete sialic acid, glycoporteins, glycerophosphocholine & resorb fluid/phagocytose spermatid remnants |
| What are key epididymus transitions? | principal cells decrease in heigh tin tail & smooth muscle inc. to 3 layers in tail |
| What is the site for vasectomy? | vasdeferens |
| What has highest ratio of muscle to lumen in the body? | vas deferens |
| What do seminal vesicles secrete? | fructose, ascorbic acid, fibrinogen (clotting) |
| What type of gland is the prostate? | compound tubulo-alveolar |
| Where are prostate glands? | fibromuscular stroma with lots of smooth muscle bundles |
| What does prostate secrete? | acid phosphatase, PSA (cancer diag.) - calicifcations = corpora amylacea |
| What secretes pre-seminal fluid? | Bulbourethral/Cowper's galnds |
| What are the Glands of Littre? | mucus secreting glands located on either side of urethra |
| Where is transtional epithelium found in the maile urethra? | prostatic region |
| Where is the urethra embedded? | corpus spongiousum |
| Where does the blood for erection come from? | helicine arteries |
| What produces female gametes & hormones? | ovary |
| What are the 2 phases of the female reproductive cycle? | follicular (first half - estrogen) & luteal (second half - progesterone) |
| What is unique about the mesothelium covering the ovary? | cuboidal instead of squamous = easier to break, cancer |
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