Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Patho Exam 1
cell regulation, cancer, fluid & electrolyte, skin & burns
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Mitosis (M phase) | phase of cell cycle where division/replication occurs |
| labile, stable, permanent | What are 3 types of cells in body? |
| G0 | resting phase of cell cycle |
| S phase | DNA replication phase of cell cycle |
| G0, G1, S, G2, M | cell cycle stages |
| oncology | study of cancer and their treatment |
| etiology | original cause of cellular alteration or disease |
| homeostasis | condition of equilibrium when various physiologic factors are within normal limits |
| allostasis | body's way of adapting to acute stress to maintain homeostasis |
| cellular adaptation | protective mechanism to prevent cellular and tissue harm because of stressors |
| pathognomic changes | unique histological findings that represent distinct disease processes |
| histology | microscopic study of tissues and cells for diagnostic purposes |
| biopsy | extraction of cell samples from an organ or mass of tissue to allow for histological examination |
| labile cell | cell type that divides rapidly |
| hair cells, epithelial cells | examples of labile cells |
| stable cell | type of cell that stays in the G0 phase until more cells are needed |
| liver cells | example of stable cells |
| permanent cell | type of cell that enters G0 phase and stays theres |
| nerve cells | example of permanent cell |
| differentiation | process of cell changing from simple form (stem cell) to a more specialized cell (progenitor cell) |
| Atrophy | shrinkage of cells; can occur from decrease in work demands |
| Hypertrophy | enlarging of cells; occurs from excessive use which cab be physiologic or pathologic |
| Hyperplasia | increase in the number of abnormal cells in an area and occurs in response to a noxious stimulus (once stimulus is removed, cells can return back to normal) |
| excessive estrogen production that causes endometrial hyperplasia and leads to abnormal menstrual bleeding | example of hyperplasia |
| Metaplasia | reversible change where one cell type is replaced by another in reponse to chronic irritation; protective mechanism |
| cells in esophagus that are constantly exposed to stomach acid/gastric secretions as a result of GERD are replaced by stomach cells because the stomach cells are made to withstand very high acidity of gastric secretions | example of metaplasia |
| Dysplasia | characterized by deranged cell growth of specific tissue resulting in cells that vary in size, shape and organization (can be reversed if irritant is removed); considered precancerous |
| cervical cells found in abnormal PAP smear | example of dysplasia |
| Anaplasia | cells that divide rapidly and have little to no resemblance to normal cells; cancerous |
| Neoplasia | new growth; cancerous |
| well-differentiated, well-defined border; progressive and slow growth; grows by expansion and does not invade surrounding tissues; does not metastasize | characteristics of benign cells? |
| undifferentiated, atypical structure, poorly defined borders; growth rate dependent on differentiation: more undifferentiated the cells, more rapid rate of growth; invasive and infiltrates tissues; gains access to lymph and blood vessels to metastasize | characteristics of malignant cells? |
| Apoptosis | programmed cell death |
| ovaries become dysfunctional during menopause | example of apoptosis as a physiologic protective mechanism |
| injury from physical agents, radiation injury, chemical injury; dysfunction of Na-K pump; loss of plasma membrane integrity; defects in protein synthesis; injury from biologic agents; genetics; intracellular accumulations; hypoxia; free radical injury | causes of cell injury? |
| spinal muscular atrophy (increased apoptosis); prostate cancer (decreased apoptosis) | examples of pathologic apoptosis? |
| Necrosis | irreversible cell death due to injury/stressors, leads to membrane disintegration, lysosomal activation and autolysis; initiation of inflammatory reaction |
| Infarction | ischemic necrosis |
| Gangrene | prolonged ischemia, infarction and necrosis; occurs from bacteria that grow in dead tissue |
| wet & dry gangrene | what are the 2 types of gangrene? |
| wet gangrene | bacteria invades the tissue which causes it to swell, ooze and have distinct odor |
| dry gangrene | lack of blood supply causing the tissue to dry, shrink and turn black |
| diabetic ulcer | type of wet gangrene? |
| frostbite | type of dry gangrene? |
| angiogenesis | formation of new blood vessels |
| carcinogenesis | initiation of cancer formation |
| aging | cancer is a disease of? |
| viruses/chronic inflammation, radiation & chemicals which contain highly reactive oxygen species/free radicals, tobacco, diet, lifestyle, environment, genetics, age, sex, hormonal agents | common causes of cancer |
| HPV, hepatitis | examples of cancer-causing viruses |
| H. pylori | example of cancer-causing bacteria |
| sun exposure/UV radiation, radiation from Xrays | examples of cancer-causing physical agents |
| tobacco and alcohol, pesticides | examples of cancer-causing chemical agents |
| sporadic | mutations that lead to cancer are from exposure to carcinogens in environment |
| inherited | mutations that lead to cancer from parent |
| tumor suppressor genes | genes that guard against cancer formation |
| proto-oncogenes | control normal cell growth and proliferation |
| oncogenes | mutated proto-oncogenes that allow unrestrained cell division |
| 1. Initiation 2. Promotion 3. Progression | 3 step process to carcinogenesis |
| Initiation | initial damage to DNA |
| Promotion | altered cell divides and passes on abnormal DNA |
| Progression | benign lesions proliferate & invade adjacent tissue or metastasize |
| Adenoma | benign tumor, glandular tissue or organ |
| Lipoma | tumor derived from fat cells |
| Hemangioma | tumor made of collection of blood vessels in skin or internal organ |
| Desmoid tumor | highly invasive, not metastasizing tumors |
| Nevi | non-cancerous moles on skin |
| Myoma | muscle tumor |
| Carcinoma | malignant epithelial cells |
| Adenocarcinoma | cancer of the glandular or ductal tissue |
| Sarcoma | cancer of mesenchymal origin, such as connective tissue, cartilage and bone |
| leukemia | cancerous changes in leukocytes |
| lymphoma | cancerous lymphocytes in lymph tissue |
| system used to determine size of tumor and extent of disease | What is TNM staging? |
| extent of primary tumor | T (in TNM staging) |
| Tx | primary tumor cannot be assessed |
| T0 | no evidence of primary tumor |
| Tis (carcinoma in situ) | cells are found only in area where formed |
| T1, T2, T3, T4 | increasing size and/or local extent of primary tumor |
| absence or presence & extent of regional lymph node metastasis | N (in TNM staging) |
| Nx | regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed |
| N0 | no regional lymph node metastasis |
| N1, N2, N3 | increasing involvement in regional lymph nodes |
| absence or presence of distant metastasis | M (in TNM staging) |
| Mx | distant metastasis cannot be assessed |
| M0 | no distant metastasis |
| M | distant metastasis |
| C | diagnosis through clinical staging (exhibits symptoms) |
| P | pathological staging (biopsy) |
| B | symptoms of fever and weight loss, etc. in a tumor |
| Tumor grading (G) | Defines type of tissue from which the tumor originated and degree to which tumor cells retain functional & histological characteristics of the tissue of origin |
| Gx | grade cannot be assessed |
| G1 | well differentiated |
| G2 | moderately differentiated |
| G3 | poorly differentiated |
| G4 | undifferentiated; poor prognosis |
| blood vessels, lymph vessels & surgery | ways cancer cells metastasize? |
| wearing sunscreen, cessation of smoking, healthy diet & exercise | primary prevention examples |
| screenings (i.e. PAP smear, mammogram, colonoscopy around age 50, dermatology screenings) | secondary prevention examples |
| treatment (chemotherapy, radiation), palliative care | tertiary prevention examples |
| Primary prevention | prevention focuses on preventing or delaying onset of cancer |
| Secondary prevention | prevention focuses on early detection through screening |
| Tertiary prevention | prevention focuses on treatment, management or prevention of progression to later stages |
| anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, pain, cachexia, paraneoplastic syndrome, fatigue & sleep disorders, loss of tissue integrity, side effects from medication/treatment, decreased resistance to infections | symptoms of cancer? |
| cachexia | end-stage wasting of musces and tissues of body |
| anorexia | no appetite |
| paraneoplastic syndrome | unexpected pathology provoked by presence of cancer; symptoms unrelated to cancer iteself but because the body is not functioning like it's supposed to |
| bones, liver, brain, lymph nodes, adrenal glands | common sites of lung cancer metastasis |
| brain, chest wall, liver, lung, bone, lymph nodes | common sites of breast cancer metastasis |
| women & men (not as common) | who is at risk of breast cancer? |
| prolonged reproductive life, family history & genetics (BRCA1&BRCA2 genes), age>50 years, hormone replacement therapy, overexpression of estrogen &progresterone receptors, obesity (estrogen stored in fat), late childbirth, no pregnancies, Ashkenazi Jewish | risk factors for breast cancer? |
| clinical manifestations | known risk factors and symptoms |
| biopsy | most definitive way to diagnose cancer? |
| mamogram, ultrasound, fine needle or excisional biopsy, ductogram, PET scan, biopsy sample tests | ways to diagnose breast cancer? |
| mammograms at age 40 | when/how do we screen for breast cancer? |
| Luminal A breast cancer | slow-growing breast cancer, 90% cure rate |
| Luminal B breast cancer | aggressive breast cancers that invade blood vessels and lymph nodes |
| Basal (triple negative) | very aggressive, rapidly growing breast cancer that lacks estrogen, progesterone and HER2 receptors |
| HER2-enriched | breast cancer that overproduces HER2 stimulating cell growth |
| Carcinoma in situ | proliferation of breast cancer cells within ducts or lobules, no invasion surrounding tissue |
| Lobular carcinoma in situ | nonpalpable lesion, discovered via biopsy |
| Invasive carcinoma | primarily adenocarcinoma |
| Paget's disease of the nipple | ductal carcinoma in situ extends into area of nipple and areola causing redness and crusting of nipple |
| singular, nontender, firm mass; irregular borders; adherence to skin or chest wall; upper, outer quadrant of breast; nipple discharge; swelling in one breast; nipple or skin retraction; peau d'orange (thickening of skin); paget's disease of breast | breast cancer signs and symptoms? |
| Prostate cancer | adenocarcinoma only in males that is classified using Gleason system and TMN system |
| men aged 55+ | who is at greatest risk of prostate cancer? |
| vertebral bones | where does prostate cancer usually metastasize to? |
| Hematuria | blood in urine |
| Azotemia | blood urine nitrogen is high |
| hematuria, azotemia, anemia, anorexia, back pain | late stage symptoms of prostate cancer? |
| family history; consumption of dietary fat, red meat, fried foods, dairy; high calcium intake; smoking; African American ethnicity; high alcohol intake; exposure to Agent Orange & cadmium | risk factors for prostate cancer? |
| sometimes no symptoms; obstructed urine flow (decreased force of stream, incomplete bladder emptying, straining) | early symptoms of prostate cancer? |
| digital rectal exam, PSA (prostate surface antigen) test, biopsy | diagnostics for prostate cancer? |
| 60% | what percentage of total body weight is water? |
| intracellular fluid | fluid inside cell |
| extracellular fluid | Na+ and water in plasma, found in intravascular compartments (arteries, veins, capillaries) |
| interstitial fluid (space) | space between cells or between cells & capillaries where extracellular fluid can be found, contains water and electrolytes, but not proteins |
| albumin | protein responsible for movement of water into and out of the vessels |
| osmolarity | measure of particles per L of solution |
| reciprocal (opposite) | relationship of blood and urine osmolarity |
| isotonic | solution that has equal distribution of sodium and water in both ICF and ECF |
| hypotonic | solution has lower tonicity (sodium level) or solute concentration than what is found inside cell (ICF); causes cell to swell |
| dehydration | when would a hypotonic solution be given to a patient? |
| increase volume in blood vessel | when would isotonic solution be given to patient? |
| 0.9% NaCL; lactated ringer's | examples of isotonic IV fluid? |
| hypertonic | solution that has higher tonicity (sodium level) or solute concentration than what is found inside cell |
| cerebral edema | when would hypertonic solution be given to patient? |
| osmosis | process by which solvent (water) passes through semipermeable membrane from lower concentration to higher concentration until equilibrium is reached |
| diffusion | movement of ions and molecules across semi-permeable membrane from area of high concentration to area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached; example is CO2 and O2 movement in the body |
| filtration | process by which solid particles in a liquid or gaseous fluid are removed by filter medium that permits the fluid to pass through but retains solid particles (e.g. nephorns in kidney = renal filtration) |
| active transport | process of moving molecules across cell membrane from area of lower to higher concentration requiring use of ATP; movemement occurs through ion channels (e.g. movement of electrons) |
| Na+/K+ Pump | Na+ is main ECF cation, K+ is main ICF cation; assists in maintenance of neuromuscular excitabiity and acid-based balances; uses ATPase pump to maintain Na+ as extracellular cation and K+ as intracellular cation |
| hydrostatic pressure | pushing force exerted by water in the bloodtream; source of pumping is the heart (arterial end); exerts outward force that pushes water through capillary membrane pores into ISF and ICF compartments |
| osmotic pressure | pressure exerted by solutes (i.e. electrolytes, mainly sodium ions and plasma proteins) in bloodstream; force that pulls water into the bloodstream from the ICF and ISF on the venous side and opposes hydrostatic pressure at all capillary membranes |
| oncotic pressure | type of osmotic pressure exerted specifically by albumin in the bloodstream |
| 3.1-4.3 g/dL | normal serum albumin level? |
| low albumin means low oncotic pressure, so the force exerted by hydrostatic pressure overwhelms oncotic pressure and this causes water in the bloodstream to be pushed outward from capillary membrane pores into ISF and ICF | how does hypoalbuminemia (low albumin) alter the oncotic pressure? |
| 275-295 milliosmoles/kg of water | normal plasma osmolality |
| edema | condition caused by excess fluid left in ISF and ICF compartments; could be due to elevated hydrostatic pressure, diminished osmotic pressure created by low amount of solutes in bloodstream, or as a result of inflammation or sodium retention |
| Renin angiotensin aldosterone system | RAAS stands for |
| low circulation, low renal perfusion, or low blood pressure detected by kidneys | what activates RAAS? |
| RAAS | mechanism used to replenish blood volume and raise blood pressure |
| renin | what is the initial enzyme secreted by kidneys when RAAS is activated? |
| cleaves angiotensinogen into angiotensin I | What does renin do in the liver? |
| Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) | enzyme in the lungs that converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II |
| angiotensin II | vasoconstrictor that raises BP and stimulates the adrenal gland to release aldosterone |
| aldosterone | mineralcorticoid that increases sodium and water reabsorption into the bloodstream at the distal tubule of the nephrons and stimulates the excretion of potassium secretion into urine, which increases blood volume and blood pressure |
| natriuresis | excretion of a large amount of both sodium and water by the kidneys in response to excess ECF volume |
| Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) | hormone released when there is too much fluid sensed in the right atrium of the heart which stimulates diuresis |
| diuresis | release of fluid in form of urine from kidneys |
| Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) | hormone stimulated by posterior pituitary gland when the blood pressure is low and causes kidneys to retain water in the blood to help elevate BP |
| Brain Natiuretic peptide | hormone released when blood vessels in brain and left ventricle of heart sense excess fluid in the vessels which stimulates diuresis; used to diagnose left-sided heart failure |
| dependent edema | collection of venous blood in lower extremities; resulting from high hydrostatic pressure pushes fluid into ISF or venous insufficiency (veins can't take extra fluid or blood back to the heart so it pools) |
| pitting edema | occurs when pressure is applied to small area and indentation persists after release of pressure; can indicate kidney disease or heart failure |
| sequestered fluids | fluids accumulated in body cavities normally free of fluids |
| transudate | serous filtrate of blood |
| fluid inside blister | e.g. of transudate |
| exudate | contains blood, lymph, proteins, pathogens, inflammatory cells |
| pus | e.g. of exudate |
| pericardial sac, peritoneal cavity, pleural space (around lung) | spaces where sequestered fluid may accumulate |
| young and elderly | who is at the greatest risk for dehydration (hypovolemia)? |
| 2.1-8.5 mg/dL | BUN normal range? |
| prolonged diarrhea, massive burns, fever & sweating | causes of dehydration/hypovolemia |
| thirst, dry mucous membranes, sunken eyes, poor skin turgor, hypotension, low urine output, dark colored urine, weight loss, tachycardia | symptoms of dehydration/hypovolemia? |
| Sensible loss | water loss that can be measured |
| urination, vomit, ostomy or wound drainage | examples of sensible loss |
| Insensible loss | water loss that can't be perceived or measured |
| lungs, sweat, feces, burns | examples of insensible loss |
| sodium | electrolyte imbalance related with hyper/hypovlemia |
| hypervolemia | fluid volume overload |
| heart failure (activation of RAAS due to low perfusion of kidney) | most common cause of hypervolemia |
| cancers that secrete ADH/SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate ADH), cirrhosis of liver due to hypoalbuminemia, polycystic kidney disease (interference with nephrons, no urine production); hypoalbuminemia caused by protein deficiency; some types of hypotension | causes of hypervolemia |
| noticeable edema in arms, legs, face; edema in abdomen; rapid weight gain; cramping; headache; bloating; shortness of breath; high BP; bounding pulse; crackles in lungs; heart problems including CHF | symptoms of hypervolemia |
| oliguria | low urine output |
| anuria | no urine output |
| 135-145 mEq/L | sodium normal range |
| Hypernatremia | elevated sodium levels |
| >145 mEq/L | hypernatremia range |
| water loss and water retention (excess secretion of aldosterone, high salt in diet, overproduction of RAAS system) | causes of hypernatremia |
| dehydration,thirst, tachycardia, oliguria, decreased salivation, headache, seizures, decreased reflexes, poor skin turgor, flushed skin, weak, thready pulse | signs & symptoms of hypovolemia hypernatremia |
| edema, weight gain, hypertension; mental changes and pulomary edema if severe | signs & symptoms of hypervolemia hypernatremia |
| athlete outside in the sun sweating profusely and losing fluids rapidly; if not replinishing fluid as quickly as losing it, leads to dehydration -> less water = less blood volume, causes sodium concentration to rise | example of hyovolemia hypernatremia |
| Hyponatremia | decreased sodium levels |
| <135 mEq/L | hyponatremia range |
| excess water, sodium diluted; syndrome of inappropriate ADH (SIADH) | causes of hypervolemia hyponatremia |
| person with diarrhea and vomiting | example of hypovolemia hyponatremia |
| Hypovolemic hyponatremia | losing water and sodium at the same rate |
| Hypovolemic hypernatremia | dehydration (loss of water leads to high sodium concentration) |
| renal causes: adrenal insufficiency, osmotic, diuresis, diuretic use nonrenal causes: diarrhea, vomiting, excessive sweating | causes of hypovolemic hyponatremia |
| headache, lethargy, confusion, muscle cramps, cell swelling may leads to seizure and coma | symptoms of hypervolemic hyponatremia |
| thirst, hypotension, tachycardia, neurologic deficits may develop | symptoms of hypovolemic hyponatremia |
| Hypervolemic hypernatremia | high sodium causes water retention |
| Hypervolemic hyponatremia | excess fluid causes sodium to be diluted |
| 3.5-5 mEq/L | normal range for Potassium |
| Potassium | what is considered the most important electrolyte? |
| electrical signaling | potassium is needed for: |
| hypokalemia | decreased potassium levels |
| <3.5 mEq/L | hypokalemia range |
| cardiac arrhythmias including prolonged PR interval, flattened T wave and prominent U wave | main distinguishing signs & symptoms of hypokalemia |
| diuretics | most common cause of hypokalemia |
| dietary K+ deficiency, vomiting & diarrhea, NG suction, hyperaldosteronism, salt-wasting kidney disease, GI surgery, alkalosis, laxative abuse | causes of hypokalemia |
| hyperkalemia | elevated potassium levels |
| >5 mEq/L | hyperkalemia range |
| >7 mEq/L | severe hyperkalemia range |
| risk of cardiac arrest, tall & peaked T wave, wide QRS complexes, dizziness | main distinguishing signs & symptoms of hyperkalemia |
| excessive intake of K+, aldosterone deficiency, Na+ depletion, acidosis, tissue trauma, burns, extreme exercise, renal failure, Addison's disease (lack of cortisol), hemolysis, potassium-sparing diuretics, ACE inhibitors | causes of hyperkalemia |
| orange juice, bananas, dried fruits, meats | foods high in potassium |
| 8.5-10.5 mg/dL | normal range of calcium |
| muscle contraction | calcium is needed for: |
| <8.5 mg/dL | hypocalcemia range |
| hypocalcemia | decreased levels of calcium |
| arrhythmias (heart block & ventricular fibrillation), increased neuromuscular excitability, hyperactive reflexes, positive Chvostek's and Trousseau's sign, hypotension | main distinguishing signs & symptoms of hypocalcemia |
| hypoparathyroidism, malabsorption syndrome, hypomagnesemia, hyperphosphatemia, renal failure, insufficient vitamin D, hypoalbuminemia, diuretic therapy, diarrhea, acute pancreatitis, gastric surgery, massive blood transfusions | causes of hypocalcemia |
| >10 mg/dL | hypercalcemia range |
| hypercalcemia | elevated levels of calcium |
| kidney stones, hematuria, tongue fasciculations, decreased neuromuscular excitability (tetany), ataxia, loss of muscle tone, hypertension | main distinguishing signs & symptoms of hypercalcemia |
| bone pain, bone fragility, dry skin & hair, cataracts, depression, dementia | chronic signs & symptoms of hypocalcemia |
| hyperparathyroidism, cancer, excessve Ca2+ in diet, excessive vitamin D, prolonged immobility, hypophosphatemia, diuretics, ACE inhibitors, lithium therapy, malignancy of bone or blood | causes of hypercalcemia |
| respiratory | what system is magnesium important for? |
| 1.8-3 mEq/L | normal range for Magnesium |
| hypomagnesemia | decreased levels of magnesium |
| <1.5 mEq/L | hypomagnesemia range |
| respiratory muscle paralysis | main distinguishing symptom of hypomagnesemia |
| prolonged diarrhea, malnutrition w/ malabsorption, alcoholism/cirrhosis, laxative abuse, increased renal excretion of magnesium, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), sepsis, burns & serious wounds requiring debridement | causes of hypomagnesemia |
| hypermagnesemia | elevated levels of magnesium |
| >2.5 mEq/L | hypermagnesemia range |
| kidney failure | most common cause of hypermagnesemia |
| excessive use of magnesium-containing laxatives & antacids, untreated diabetic ketoacidosis, excessive magnesium infusion | causes of hypermagnesemia |
| inhibits acetylcholine release & can cause diminished neuromuscular function, muscle weakness, hyporeflexia, hypotension & arrhythmias, lethargy & confusion | some signs & symptoms of hypermagnesemia |
| 2.5-4.5 mg/dL | phosphate normal range |
| hypophosphatemia | decreased levels of phosphate |
| <2.5 mg/dL | hypophosphatemia range |
| ingestion of excess antacids (aluminum), severe diarrhea, lack of vitamin D, hypercalcemia, alkalosis, hyperparathyroidism, diabetic ketoacidosis | causes of hypophosphatemia |
| anorexia, confusion, ataxia (difficulty walking), joint stiffness | main distinguishing signs & symptoms of hypophosphatemia |
| hyperphosphatemia | elevated levels of phosphate |
| >4.5 mg/dL | hyperphosphatemia range |
| kidney failure | most common cause of hyperphosphatemia |
| usually associated with hypocalcemia & reflect those symptoms (paresthesia, muscle cramps, tetany, hypotension, cardiac arrhythmias) | signs & symptoms of hyperphosphatemia |
| hem(o) or hemat(o) | prefix for blood |
| erythr(o) | prefix for red |
| leuk(o) | prefix for white |
| an | prefix for without |
| immun | prefix for immunity |
| lymph | prefix for clear water or fluid |
| thromb | prefix for clot |
| necr | prefix for death |
| ology | suffix for study of |
| rrhage | suffix for excessive flow |
| oma | suffix for tumor |
| poiesis | suffix for production |
| penia | suffix for deficiency |
| cytes | suffix for cells |
| emia | suffix for condition of blood |
| globin | suffix for protein |
| osis | suffix for abnormal conditions |
| philia | suffix for abnormal attraction or love of |
| itis | suffix for inflammation |
| 4000-10,000 cells/mcL | WBC normal range |
| males: 4.5-5.5 million cells/mcL females: 4-4.9 million cells/mcL | RBC normal range |
| male: 45-52% female: 37-48% | HCT normal range |
| male:13-18 gm/dL female: 12-16 gm/dL | HGB normal range |
| 150,000-450,000 cells/mcL | platelets normal range |
| 10-13 seconds | PT normal range |
| 1.1 or below | INR normal range |
| 30-40 seconds | aPTT normal range |
| albumin | hydrophilic protein (helps pull water back into the cell) that is made in the liver; functions as carriers; controls plasma oncotic pressure |
| hematopoeisis | process of blood cell production in adult bone marrow or in the liver & spleen of fetus |
| transport O2 and CO2 | role of erythrocytes |
| defend body against infection and remove debris | role of leukocytes |
| blood coagulation & control of bleeding | role of thrombocytes |
| medullay hematopoeisis | blood cell production that occurs in the bone marrow |
| extramedullary hematopoeisis | blood cell production that occurs outside of the bone marrow in the liver & spleen |
| myeloid stem cells | very immature cells that start differentiation of red blood cells, platelets and most white blood cells |
| erythroblasts | before becoming a reticulocyte, these are slightly differentiated but still immature myeloid stem cells |
| reticulocyte | immature red blood cell |
| red blood cells are being damaged too quickly and not enough time to replenish them | what could an increase in reticulocyte count indicate? |
| megakaryoblasts | very immature cells that will eventually become platelets; slighlty differentiated from myeloid stem cells |
| megakaryocytes | immature cells that become platelets |
| myeloblasts | slighlty differentiated from myeloid stem cells, these immature cells go on to become granulocytes |
| monoblasts | slightly differentiated from myeloid stem cells, these immature cells go on to become monocytes |
| B cells & T cells (lymphocytes) | lymphoid stem cells go on to eventually become? |
| yellow bone marrow | after age 7, red bone marrow starts to become ? |
| fatty embolus | what is the risk of breaking a long bone in an adult? |
| neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils | what are the granulocytes? |
| inflammation | role of basophils? |
| allergic & parasitic infections | role of eosinophils? |
| segs | what distinguishes mature neutrophils? |
| bands or stabs | what distinguishes immature neutrophils? |
| innate immunity | role of neutrophils? |
| phagocytosis, synthesize & secrete cytokines, mature into dendritic cells | role of monocytes? |
| immune response cells | role of lymphocytes? |
| leukocytosis | abnormally high number of WBCs in blood circulation |
| >11,000 cells/mcL | leukocytosis range |
| leukemoid reaction | abnormally & extremely high number of WBCs in blood circulation |
| >50,000 cells/mcL | leukemoid reaction range |
| leukopenia | abnormally low number of WBCs in blood circulation |
| <4000 cells/mcL | leukopenia range |
| thrombocytopenia | abnormally low number of platelets, resulting from decrease in platelet production, increased sequestration of platelets in the spleen or decreased platelet survival |
| drug-induced thrombocytopenia-ASA | patient presents with petechial hemorrhages and purpura, platelet counts <20,000 cells/mcL, no distinctly apparent cause, associated with drug (including herbal and OTC meds) that has been taken for about 1 week or intermittently over long period |
| idiopathic (immune) thrombocytopenia purpura (ITP) | one of the most common autoimmune disorders, caused by autoantibodies that develop against platelets ; can be caused by acute infection ( virus) in kids; presents with petechiae, purpura, bleeding gums, epistaxis, abnormal menstrual bleeding, splenomegaly |
| thrombotic thrombocytopenia purpura (TTP) | caused by deficiency of enzyme metalloprotease (destroyed by autoantibodies) that acts on vWF which leads to unmodified vWF, causing platelet adhesion & aggreagation, then leads to widespread micro-clot formation which uses up the platelets and RBCs |
| hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenic purpura, neurological abnormalities, fever, renal disease | 5 signs & symptoms of thrombotic thrombocytopenia purpura? |
| spleen | site of platelet destruction? |
| Platelets activate when bound to collagen or vWF at site of vascular injury which causes them to secrete chemicals that cause vasoconstriction | Step 1 of hemostasis (first step) |
| Formation of platelet plug (activated platelets are sticky and clump together) | Step 2 of hemostasis |
| Tissue factor activates coagulation cascade (extrinsic vs intrinsic, common) -> platelet plug + fibrin = clot | Step 3 of hemostasis |
| Clot retraction ( activated platelets transduce contractile forces using actin & myosin on the fibrin network of thrombus which squeezes the serum from the clot, over time increases clot density and decreases clot size) | Step 4 of hemostasis |
| fibrinolysis (small cascade that use tPA and produces plasmin which cleaves fibrin and dissolves clot) | Step 5 of hemostasis (last step) |
| thrombopoietin | synthesized from liver & activates platelet formation |
| Adhesion, activation and aggregation | 3 steps of platelet plug formation |
| Intrinsic pathway | longer pathway, responsible for forming a clot when damage occurs through the wall of blood vessel |
| aPTT (activated partial thromboplastin time) | determines how long the intrinsic pathway is |
| Extrinsic pathway | shorter pathway, responsible for forming a clot when there is superficial damage occurring to epithelial tissue |
| tissue factor | release of this factor stimulates the extrinsic pathway |
| von Willebrand factor | release of this factor stimulates the intrinsic pathway |
| PT and INR | determines how long it takes the extrinsic pathway to respond |
| Common pathway | starts the actual production of fibrin, starts with factor X |
| Factor X -> Factor V -> Prothrombin becomes Thrombin -> Fibrinogen becomes Fibrin | steps of common pathway |
| ischemia | inadequate blood supply to part of body typically caused by a blocked vessel |
| embolus | traveling thrombus |
| D-dimer | checks blood for clots |
| erythropoeitin | released by the kidney in states of hypoxia with stimulates the bone marrow to produce RBCs |
| Anemia | abnormally low number of circulating RBCs or levels of hemoglobin or both |
| Gi tract blood loss, heavy menstrual periods, tachycardia, jaundice, fatigue, splenomegaly; nutritional anemias can cause glossitis, cheilitis, koilonychia or pica | signs and symptoms of anemia |
| deficiencies (iron, vitamin B12, folic acid), blood loss (chronic and acute), hemoglobinopathies, medications, hemolysis | causes of anemia |
| Iron deficiency anemia | common worldwide cause of anemia resulting from dietary deficiency, loss of iron through bleeding or increased demands |
| Pernicious anemia | deficiency in B12 caused by poor dietary intake of B12 or instrinsic factor in GI tract that cause poor or malabsorption of B12 (e.g autoimmune disease like ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease) |
| Hemolytic anemia | anemia caused by destruction of RBCs that outpaces synthesis of RBCsin bone marrow; can be acute or chronic; can occur because of various disorders including hemoglobinopathies, medication side effects, autoimmune disorders, blood transfusions |
| Anemia of acute blood loss | drop in RBC population caused by hemorrhage (i.e. trauma), or significant acute internal blood loss into the thoracic and abdominal cavities caused by rupture of an artery or organ |
| Anemia of chronic blood loss | patient endures slow, gradual blood loss via the GI tract or excessive monthly menstrual loss; usually subtle and asymptomatic |
| hemoglobinopathy, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, hereditary spherocytosis, blood transfusion reactions | types of hemolytic anemia |
| hemoglobinopathy | inherited disorder of the structure of the hemoglobin molecule (causing it to not carry oxygen efficiently) that can lead to destruction of the RBC |
| because dehydration can cause sickle cells to swell, clump and cause ischemia (leads to stroke) | important for person with sickle cell disease to stay hydrated, why? |
| thalassemia | genetic disorder that causes defects in Hgb synthesis |
| Aplastic anemia | occurs when bone marrow fails, resulting in hypocellular bone marrow and pancytopenia; very rare, most of the time acquired because of infections such as HIV, hepatitis or Epstein Barr |
| pancytopenia | defiiciency of all blood cells |
| Hodgkin Disease | more curable form of lymphoma that originates in a single node or chain of nodes, with Reed-Sternberg cells present |
| Non-hodgkin's disease | more common lymphoma originating at extranodal sites that spreads to anatomically contiguous nodes, NO Reed-Sternberg cells present |
| Leukemia | malignant neoplasms arising from transformation of single blood cell line derived from hematopoietic stem cells |
| leukostasis, tumor lysis syndrome, hyperuricemia, blast crisis | complications of leukemia |
| Chronic Lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL), Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML), Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML) | 4 types of leukemia: |
| erythema | reddened skin |
| induration | hardening or thickening of skin |
| bulla | large blister |
| telangiectasia | fine, irregular red lines produced by dilation of capillaries (spider veins) |
| pustule | papule filled with pus (pimple) |
| scale | fragment of dry skin |
| scar | permanent replacement of normal skin with connective tissue |
| ulcer | loss of epidermal and dermal tissue |
| lichenification | hardening or thickening of skin with markings due to trauma |
| macule | flat area of pigmentation (freckle) |
| nodule | solid lump greater than 0.5 cm in diameter (bug bite or cystic acne) |
| plaque | raised, flat-topped lesion greater than 2 cm (eczema or psoriasis) |
| vesicle | small blister |
| wheals (urticaria) | transient, pale elevated papules with pink margins |
| albinism | genetic disorder, lack of pigmentation |
| vitligo | abnormalities in melanin production leading to discolored skin patches |
| melasma | appearance of dark macules on the face, more common in brown-skinned women |
| lentigos | age spots |
| xerosis | dry skin, more easily bruised/damaged |
| pruritis | itching |
| telogen effluvium | decreased growth vs rest cycle of hair (overall thinning) |
| alopecia | sudden loss of hair in one area of scalp |
| pitting | tiny dents in nails, sign of psoriasis |
| clubbing | widened nails, bulging fingertips, soft nail bed, downward curving of nails (caused by chronic hypoxia) |
| koilnychia | spooning of the nails (sign of liver and/or thyroid problem) |
| paronychia | pain and swelling around paronychial fold |
| onychomycosis | fungal or yeast infection of nail folds |
| onycholysis | infection that causes nail plate to separate from nail bed |
| hyperhidrosis | excessive sweat production |
| anhidrosis | diminished sweat production, caused by hidradentitis supprativa (clogging of aprocine glands) |
| acne vulgaris | multifactorial inflammation of sebaceous glands, most commonly seen in puberty due to hormones; there is a bacterial component |
| acne rosacea | reddened cheek caused by inflammatory process |
| birthmarks | present at birth or develop during infancy, may darken with age |
| hemangiomas | benign tumor of a bundle of blood vessles, can be internal or external |
| port wine stains | pemanent blood vessel abnormalities, causing red splotching on infants skin, may lighten/fade with age |
| UV wood's light | use of UV light that causes bacteria or fungi to grow |
| Nevi | moles, most common type of benign skin tumor |
| actinic keratosis | premalignant lesion; rough, scaly, red plaques |
| lentigos | premalignant skin lesion; brown spot (age spots) |
| malignant melanoma | most lethal form of cancer, originates in melanocytes (beginning on surface but then becomes dysplastic, penetrates and metastasizes), considered deadliest form of skin cancer |
| asymmetry, border (flat, raised, irregular?), color (darker, variable?), diameter, evolving | ABCDE of assessed nevi |
| basal cell carcinoma | most common and least invasive form of skin cancer, begins as small, dome-shaped bump with shiny, translucent texture and grows slowly and deeply |
| squamous cell carcinoma | may develop from actinic keratosis, risk increases with age/uv exposure, appears as red, crusted or scaly patch and may appear as non-healing ulcer or firm, red nodule; treatable if caught early |
| temperature control, barrier protection, secretion and absorption, vitamin D production, immunological surveillance, mirror for internal disease processes, indicator of general health | functions of the skin? |
| superficial burn | damage only to epidermal layer; vasodilation causes redness to skin, no blisters, heals in less than 1 week |
| superficial partial-thickness burns | chars the epidermis and papillary dermis; edema & epidermal blisters; skin in wet, raw and pink or white; painful; heals in 3-6 weeks and may scar |
| deep partial-thickness injuries | burns through epidermis & dermis; skin may be mottled; blistering |
| full-thickness injuries | damage to epidermis, dermis, hair follices and all underlying structures; nerve endings destroyed so pain is rare; skin may be white, black, brown or red; significant edema in surrounding tissues |
| Rule of 9s and Lund & Browder method | two methods of determining surface area of a burn? |
| Lund & Browder (more precise of estimating extent of burn and more accurate for children) | which method of determing surface area of a burn is more accurate? |
| rapid, pre-hospital, emergent situations | when is Rule of 9s used? |
| zone of coagulation | deepest point of injury and most irreversible damage |
| zone of stasis | decreased tissue perfusion; potentially reversible damage |
| zone of hyperemia | outer zone, reddened due to vasodilation; minimal tissue damage; heals well |
| ABCDEF (airway, breathing, circulation, disability, exposure, fluid resuscitation) | priority of burn care? |
| contracture | deep thermal and full thickness burns that start to heal become constricted regions of tissue, especially around joints, which limits function |
| hypertrophic scarring | aka keloids, hyperemic raised areas of firm skin |
| compartment syndrome | full-thickness circumferential and near-circumferential skin burns become tough, dead tissue which compromises circulation and causes excessive fluid build up and this causes ischemia and blood flow to tissue is lost |
| burn and scald | 2 common burn etiologies |
| thermal, chemical, electrical, radiation | types of burns |
| cell damage and death release vasoactive substances which increases vascular permeability with fluid and protein shift from ICF to ECF, leak into ISF (increased risk for hypovolemia); cell damage (leak of potassium into ECF increases risk for hyperkalemia | complications of burns |
| depth, how the injury occurred, causative agent, temperature of burning agent, duration of contact with burning agent, thickness of skin in area burned | classifying burns |
| Minor burn | partial-thickness burn of less than 15% TBSA in adults or full-thickness burn of less than 2% TBSA not involving special care areas |
| Moderate burn | burn less than 10% of TBSA full-thickness and no special care areas or partial-thickness burn of 15-25% TBSA in adults |
| Major burns | partial-thickness burn exceeding 25% TBSA in adults, full-thickness burn exceeding 10% TBSA, involves special carea areas, all burns involving inhalataion injury, electrical injury, concurrent trauma and poor-risk patients |
Created by:
blangen2
Popular Nursing sets