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LINGUISTICS LECTURE
1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Why is language a living phenomenon? | Language undergoes a continuous, though unnoticed, process of growth and change. It becomes sharp, crisp, refined and versatile with the passage of time. Hence, language is a living phenomenon. |
| What is language? | A form of communication that allows intercourse between multiple people that is arbitrary (in words individually), generative (in word placement), and constantly evolving. |
| What was Max Muller's theory on the origin of language? | the origin of language arose through “onomatopoeia, ” which, in simple words, is the imitation of sounds in nature Specifically, the sounds from animals were the most imitated from the environment. |
| Explain the ding-dong theory of the origin of language. | Speech arose in response to the essential qualities of objects in the environment. The original sounds people made were supposedly in harmony with the world around them. Sense of rhythm- imitation |
| What was Wilhelm Wundt's theory on the origin of language? | Earliest communication was through sign and gesture by hands Gesture of hands accompanied with movement of tongue, lips or jaw |
| Explain the pooh-pooh theory of language. | Speech began with emotional interjections evoked by pain, surprise, pleasure, wonder, etc. Refinement of cries |
| Explain the characteristics of language. | Language is a living phenomenon, as it undergoes a continuous, though unnoticed, process of growth and change, yet remains sharp, crisp, refined and versatile with the passage of time. It is infinite, open, and not just utilitarian. |
| What is the purpose of language? | The purpose of language is to communicate, whether with others by talking and writing or with ourselves by thinking. |
| What are the properties of language? | DISPLACEMENT, PRODUCTIVITY, ARBITRARINESS, CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, DISCRETENESS, AND DUALITY. |
| What is a language family? | A language family is a group of related languages that developed from a common historic ancestor, referred to as protolanguage (proto– means ‘early’ in Greek). |
| Explain protolanguage in linguistics. | Protolanguage in linguistics refers to a hypothetical, rudimentary form of communication that precedes the development of fully developed languages and is thought to have been a precursor to the emergence of complex linguistic systems. |
| How do linguists establish relationships among languages? | Linguists establish relationships among languages through comparative linguistics, typically by analyzing shared cognates, sound correspondences, and grammatical structures. |
| explain the Indo-European language family and the Germanic group in a similar length of words | Indo-European: Language family in Europe, Asia, and India. Germanic: Subset with English, German, Dutch. Shared roots, linguistic ties. |
| How did the English language originate? | The English language originated with Germanic tribes invading Britain in the 5th century AD; |
| When did Old English evolve? | Old English evolved until 1100. |
| What led to emergence of Middle English? | Middle English emerged after the Norman Conquest in 1066, blending French influence. |
| What was the significance of Early Modern English? | Early Modern English (1500-1800) saw the Great Vowel Shift and the rise of global contact. |
| Explain how Late Modern English evolved. | Late Modern English (1800-present) reflects the Industrial Revolution, the British Empire, and technological advancements, expanding vocabulary. |
| Explain how American English developed. | American English, influenced by colonization, Spanish, French, and West African languages, became prominent. |
| Why does today's English exhibit diverse varieties? | Today, English exhibits diverse global varieties due to cultural, historical, and technological influences. |
| What were five events that shaped the history of English? | 1- The Anglo-Saxon Settlement 2-The Scandinavian Settlements 3-The Norman conquest 1066 4-Standardization 5-Colonization and Globalization |
| What is linguistics? | Linguistics is the study of language, exploring its structure, usage, variations, and its impact on thought processes. |
| What commonalities do languages worldwide share, according to linguistics? | Languages globally share commonalities in structure, usage, acquisition, and undergo changes over time. |
| What aspects of language do linguists examine in their research? | Linguists study language structure (sounds and meanings), patterns, interactions between language components, language acquisition, and its interaction with cognitive processes. |
| How many phonetic alphabets are there? | As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters, 52 diacritics and four prosodic marks in the IPA. |
| What is phonetics | the study of human sounds |
| What is phonology | and phonology is the classification of the sounds within the system of a particular language or languages. |
| How are phonetics categorized | By production |
| What are the types of phonetics? | Respiratory, Articulatory, and Phonatory |
| Articulatory phonetics is | The branch of phonetics concerned with describing the speech sounds of the world's languages in terms of their articulations, that is, the movements and/or positions of the vocal organs (articulators). |
| Acoustic Phonetics is | concerned with the study of speech waves as the output of the vocal tract. It describes the volume, pitch, etc. of speech sounds as they travel in the atmosphere with the help of instruments |
| Auditory Phonetics is | concerned with how the listener receives the speech sounds. It focuses on the impact that speech sounds make on the eardrum of the listener. (auditive) of sounds. |
| How are consonants characeterized | place, 2) manner of articulation and 3) voice (voiceless or voiced). |
| What are the air stream mechanisms in the respiratory system | Glottalic Velaric Pulmonic |
| What is the Glottalic Air Stream Mechanism | the air stream above the glottis which is closed for the production of sounds using this air stream |
| What is the Velaric Air Stream Mechanism | The passage of air from the lungs is blocked by the back of the tongue which makes firm contact with the velum. This is known as the velaric air stream |
| What is the Pulmonic Air Stream Mechanism | it is the air exhaled from the lungs which initiates the air stream. |
| What is the Phonatory system comprised of | The Larynx in the throat |
| What are the parts of the articulatory system | PHARYNX LIPS TEETH TEETH RIDGE HARD PALATE SOFT PALATE UVULA THE TONGUE |
| How are vowels categorized | (A) Position of the tongue , (B) Height of the tongue, (C) Position of the lips. |
| How are consonants categorized | 1-Voicing 2-Place of Articulation 3-Manner of Articulation |
| Phonetics | study of individual speech sounds |
| Phonology | The study of phonemes, which are the speech sounds of an individual language |
| Morphology | the study of words and other meaningful units of language like suffixes and prefixes. |
| Syntax | the study of sentences and phrases, or how people put words into the right order so that they can communicate meaningfully. |
| Someone who studies semantics is interested in | words and what real-world object or concept those words denote, or point to. |
| Pragmatics is an even broader field that studies how | the context of a sentence contributes to meaning |
| Phoneme | the smallest unit of sound that may cause a change of meaning within a language, but that doesn’t have meaning by itself. |
| English language has approximately how many different phonemes? | 45 |
| Morphemes | the basic unit of morphology, are the smallest meaningful unit of language. Thus, a morpheme is a series of phonemes that has a special meaning. |
| How are morphemes categorized | Free and Bound |
| Explain free morphemes | If a morpheme is altered in any way, the entire meaning of the word can be changed. Some morphemes are individual words (such as “eat” or “water”). These are known as free morphemes because THEY CAN EXIST ON THEIR OWN. |
| Explain bound morphemes | Because these morphemes must be attached to another word to have meaning, they are called bound morphemes. |
| Within the category of bound morphemes, there are two additional subtypes. Name them, | derivational and inflectional. |
| Derivational morphemes | change the meaning or part of speech of a word when they are used together. |
| Inflectional morphemes | modify either the tense of a verb or the number value of a noun; for example, when you add an “-s” to “cat,” the number of cats changes from one to more than one. |
| Lexemes | the set of inflected forms taken by a single word. |
| Context | how everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning |
| What does Context include | Tone of voice, body language, and the words being used. |
| The five main components of language are | phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, syntax, and context. |
| Affix | a bound morpheme that occurs before or after a base. |
| Suffix | An affix that comes after a base is called |
| An affix can be either | derivational or inflectional |
| Derivational affixes | serve to alter the meaning of a word by building on a base. |
| How many inflectional affixes are there | 8 |
| The inflectional affixes | -s -'s -s -ing -ed -en -er -est |
| The two kinds of free morphemes | Content words and function words |
| Inflectional morphemes | This type of morpheme alters the grammatical function of a word, whether it be the verb tense, number, mood, or another language inflection. |
| The eight inflectional morphemes are organized by which part of speech they modify | Modify a Noun: -s (or -es), -'s (or s') Modify an Adjective: -er, -est Modify a Verb: -ed, -ing, -en |
| A morpheme is derivational when | it changes the semantic meaning of a word. Unlike inflectional morphemes, derivational morphemes CAN CHANGE A WORD'S PART OF SPEECH |
| A morphological process | a means of changing a stem to adjust its meaning to fit its syntactic and communicational context. |
| WHAT ARE THE KINDS OF MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES | AFFIXATION PREFIXATION SUFFIXATION CIRCUMFIXATION MODIFICATION REDUPLICATION |
| Affixation | the morphological process whereby an affix is attached to a root or stem |
| Prefixation | a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached to the front of a root or stem. |
| Suffixation | a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached to the end of a stem. |
| Circumfixation | a morphological process whereby an affix made up of two separate parts surrounds and attaches to a root or stem. |
| Infixation | a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme attaches within a root or stem. |
| modification | a morphological process which produces an alteration within a root or stem. |
| Reduplication | a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is repeated. |
| Compounding | combining two or more stems to form a new word that is stored as a single entry in the lexicon |
| What are the parts of a compound word | Generally, one of the words is the head of the compound and the other(s) its modifier(s). |
| What are the three types of compounds in terms of the semantic relationship between the compound and its head | Endocentric Exocentric Coordinative |
| Endocentric compounds | This type of compound represents a subtype of whatever the head represents. |
| Exocentric compounds | compound names a subtype, but the type is not represented by either the head or the modifier in the compound. |
| Coordinative compounds | There are compounds in which both elements are heads; each contributes equally to the meaning of the whole and neither is subordinate to the other |
| Rule # 1 of Compounding | The meaning of a compound is not affected by spelling |
| Rule #2 of compounding | First, the stress pattern of the compound word is usually different from the stress pattern in the phrase composed of the same words in the same order |
| Rule #3 of compounding | The meaning of the compound may differ to a greater or lesser degree from that of the corresponding phrase. |
| Rule #4 of compounding | The order of the constituent words is different from that in the corresponding phrase |
| Rule #5 of compounding | Compound nouns allow no modification to the first element. |
| Syntax | the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences (sentence structure) in a given language, usually including word order. |
| A sentence | a group of words expressing an idea. ... It has a subject that is expressed or, as in imperative sentences, understood and a predicate that contains at least one finite verb. |
| Sentence Structure | the way a sentence is arranged, grammatically. |
| What is transformation in grammar? | a system of language analysis that recognizes the relationship among the various elements of a sentence and among the possible sentences of a language and uses processes or rules (some of which are called transformations) to express these relationships. |
| why does transformational grammar assign a "deep structure" and a "surface structure" | to show the relationship of such sentences. |
| What are the principles of Chomsky's Universal Grammar theory? | The existence of innate linguistic knowledge in all humans The presence of shared linguistic structures across languages The ability to acquire language without explicit teaching or feedback |
| Explain competence and performance according to the Universal Grammar Theory | Competence-Internalized linguistic knowledge possessed by an individual Performance- An individual's actual use of language in speech or writing |
| What is a Language Acquisition Device and what does it do? | This LAD is believed to be responsible for understanding the structure of a language and applying its underlying principles. It is hypothesized that the LAD allows children to effortlessly and rapidly acquire language skills in their early years. |
| Semantic relationships | The associations that exist between the MEANINGS OF WORDS, PHRASES, AND SENTENCES |
| What are the types of semantic relationships at word level? | Synonymy Antonomy Homonymy Polysemy Metonymy |
| Metonymy | the semantic relationship that exists between two words(or a word and an expression) in which one of the words is metaphorically used in place of the other word (or expression) in particular contexts to convey the same meaning |
| Polysemy | the semantic relationship that exists between a word and its multiple conceptually and historically related meanings. |
| Hyponomy | the semantic relationship that exists between two (or more) wordsin such a way that the meaning of one word includes (or contains) the meaning of other words(s) |
| Also known as pointing via language, What is .Deixis? | The use of general words and phrases to refer to a specific time, place, or person in context |
| Deictic expressions | Bits of language that we can only understand in terms of the speaker's intended meaning |
| What are the 4 types of deictic expressions | PERSON, TIME, PLACE, OTHER |
| What is reference in linguistics | An act in which a speaker or writer uses linguistic forms to enable a listener or reader to identify something. |
| o the speaker’s goals and beliefs about the listener knowledge in the use of language is tied to | Reference |
| Inference | an additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be meant. |
| Explain Antecedent and Anaphora | Antecedent is the first reference Anaphora is subsequent reference to an already introduced entity. Used for maintaining reference |
| PRESUPPOSITION | What a speaker assumes is true or is known by the hearer can be described as |
| According to Geoffrey Leech, what are the seven types of meanings? | Conceptual Meaning Connotative Meaning Social Meaning Affective Meaning Reflected Meaning Collocative Meaning Thematic Meaning |
| Thematic meaning | concerned with how a word contributes to the overall theme or subject matter of a text or discourse. |
| Collocative meanings | involves the habitual associations a word has with certain words or types of words, forming typical word combinations. |
| Reflected meaning | the associations a word has with other words, influencing its overall meaning. |
| Affective meaning | deals with the expression of emotions through language, capturing the speaker's attitude or feelings. |
| Social meaning | relates to the social context in which language is used, including aspects like social status, politeness, and formality. |
| Connotative Meaning | involves the emotional or evaluative associations that a word may carry beyond its conceptual meaning. |
| Conceptual meaning | the basic, core meaning of a word, representing the concept it refers to. It's the primary, dictionary definition. |
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