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Genetics

Exam 1-Lesson 1-3

Term	Definition
Behavioral traits	A trait that involves behavior. An example is the ability to learn a maze.
Biological evolution	The accumulation of genetic changes in a species or population from one generation to the next.
Cellular level	With regard to gene expression, the level of observation at which genes affect the traits of cells.
Diploid	Refers to an organism or cell that contains two sets of chromosomes.
Enzymes	A protein that functions to accelerate chemical reactions within the cell.
Gametes	A reproductive cell (usually haploid) that can unite with another reproductive cell to create a zygote. Sperm and egg cells are types of gametes.
Gene	the basic physical and functional unit of heredity
Gene Expression	The process in which the information within a gene is accessed, first to synthesize RNA and usually polypeptides, and eventually to affect the phenotype of the organism.
Gene mutation	A relatively small heritable change that affects only a single gene.
Genome	All of the genetic material that a cell, an organism, or a species can possess.
Genetic Approach	n research, the study of mutant genes that have abnormal function. By studying mutant genes, researchers may better understand normal genes and normal biological processes.
Genetic Code	The correspondence between a codon (i.e., a sequence of three bases in an mRNA molecule) and the functional role that the codon plays during translation. Each codon specifies a particular amino acid or the end of translation.
Genetic Cross	The breeding of two individuals and the analysis of their offspring in an attempt to understand how traits are passed from parent to offspring.
Genetic Variations	Genetic differences among members of the same species or among different species.
Haploid	Containing half the genetic material found in somatic cells. For a species that is diploid, a haploid gamete contains a single set of chromosomes.
Homologs	One of the chromosomes in a pair of homologous chromosomes.
Lipids	A general name given to an organic molecule that is insoluble in water. Cell membranes contain a large amount of lipids.
Carbohydrates	Organic molecules with the general formula Cn(H2O)n. An example of a simple carbohydrate is the sugar glucose. Large carbohydrates are composed of multiple sugar units.
Loss of function allele	An allele of a gene that encodes an RNA or protein that is nonfunctional or compromised in function.
loss of function mutation	A change in a genetic sequence that creates a loss-of-function allele.
macromolecules	A large organic molecule composed of smaller building blocks. Examples include DNA, RNA, proteins, and large carbohydrates.
Model organisms	An organism studied by many researchers so that they can more easily compare their results and begin to understand the properties of a given species.
Molecular level	With regard to gene expression, the level of observation at which genes affect the molecular properties of an organism.
Natural selection	The process whereby differential fitness acts on the gene pool.
Norm of reaction	The effects of environmental variation on a phenotype.
organelle	A large, specialized structure within a cell, which is surrounded by a single or double membrane.
Organism level	The level of observation or experimentation that involves a whole organism.
Physiological traits	A trait that affects a cellular or body function. An example is the rate of glucose metabolism.
polypeptides	A sequence of amino acids that is the product of mRNA translation. One or more polypeptides fold and associate with each other to form a functional protein.
proteins	functional unit composed of one or more polypeptides.
proteome	The collection of all proteins that a given cell or species can make.
population level	The level of observation or experimentation that involves a population of organisms.
somatic cells	Any cell of the body except for gametes and the germ-line cells that give rise to gametes.
species	A group of organisms that maintains a distinctive set of attributes in nature.
traits	specific characteristic of an organism that is determined by its genes, the environment, or both
transcription	The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
translation	The synthesis of a polypeptide using the information contained in the codons of an mRNA.
binary fission	The physical process whereby a bacterial cell divides into two daughter cells. During this event, the two daughter cells become divided by the formation of a septum.
bivalent	A structure in which two pairs of homologous sister chromatids have synapsed (i.e., aligned) with each other.
cell plate	The structure that forms between two daughter plant cells and leads to the separation of the cells by formation of an intervening cell wall.
centrosomes	A cellular structure from which microtubules emanate.
centriole	In animal cells, a pair of cylindrically shaped structures found within the centrosome.
Chiasma	The site where crossing over occurs between two chromosomes. It resembles the Greek letter chi, χ.
Cleavage furrow	A constriction that precedes the division of two animal cells during cytokinesis.
crossing over	A physical exchange of chromosome pieces that most commonly occurs during prophase of meiosis I.
Cytogenetics	The field of genetics that involves the microscopic examination of chromosomes.
Diakinesis	The fifth stage of prophase of meiosis I.
Diplotene	The fourth stage of prophase of meiosis I.
Dyad	A pair of sister chromatids.
Gametogenesis	The production of gametes (e.g., sperm or egg cells).
Heterogamous	Describes a species that produces two morphologically different types of gametes (i.e., sperm and eggs).
Homozygous	Describes a diploid individual that has two identical alleles of a particular gene.
Isogamous	Describes a species that makes morphologically similar gametes.
Karyotype	An organized representation of a micrograph of all the chromosomes within a cell. It reveals how many chromosomes are found within an actively dividing somatic cell.
Kinetochore	A group of cellular proteins that attach to the centromere during meiosis and mitosis.
Leptotene	The first stage of prophase of meiosis I.
Locus	The physical location of a gene or other DNA segment within a chromosome.
Meiosis	A form of cell division in which the sorting process results in the production of haploid cells from a diploid cell.
Metaphase plate	The plane at which chromosomes align during metaphase.
Microtubule-organizing centers	A structure in a cell from which microtubules begin to grow.
Mitosis	A type of nuclear division into two nuclei, such that each daughter cell receives the same complement of chromosomes.
Monad	A single chromatid within a pair of sister chromatids; can also refer to a chromosome that has not replicated.
Oogenesis	The production of egg cells.
Prokaryote	Another name for bacteria and archaea. The term refers to the fact that their chromosomes are not contained within a separate nucleus in the cell.
Restriction point	A point in the G1phase of the cell cycle at which a cell becomes committed to cell division.
spermatogenesis	The production of sperm cells.
synapsis	The event in which homologous chromosomes recognize each other and begin to align themselves along their entire lengths.
synaptonemal complex	A complex of proteins that promotes the interconnection between homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
Tetrad	The association of four sister chromatids during meiosis.
Zygotene	The second stage of prophase of meiosis I.
Anthers	The structure in flowering plants that gives rise to pollen grains.
Binomial expansion equation	An equation used to solve genetic problems involving two types of unordered events.
Blending hypothesis of inheritance	An early, incorrect hypothesis of heredity. According to this view, the seeds that dictate hereditary traits are able to blend together from generation to generation. The blended traits can then be passed to the next generation.
Chromosome theroy of Inheritance	The theory of Sutton and Boveri that the inheritance patterns of traits can be explained by the transmission patterns of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization.
Cross fertilization	The process of breeding (crossing) two particular plants in which the pollen from one is placed on the stigma of the other.
Empirical Approach	A strategy in which experiments are designed to determine quantitative relationships as a way to derive laws that govern biological, chemical, or physical phenomena.
Forked line method	A method to solve independent assortment problems in which lines are drawn to connect particular genotypes.
Genetic recombination	1) the process in which chromosomes are broken and then rejoined to form a new genetic combination; (2) the process in which alleles are assorted and passed to offspring in combinations that are different from those in the parents.
hydribization	(1) the mating of two organisms of the same species with different characteristics; (2) the phenomenon in which two single-stranded molecules renature together to form a hybrid molecule.
Mendel's law of Independent Assortment	Two different genes randomly assort their alleles during the process that gives rise to gametes (if they are not linked).
Mendel's Law of Segregation	The two copies of a gene segregate from each other during the process that gives rise to gametes.
Monohybrids	A heterozygous individual produced from a single-factor cross.
Multiplication method	A method for solving independent assortment problems in which the probabilities of the outcome for each gene are multiplied together.
Pedigree analysis	Genetic analysis using information contained within family trees. In this approach, the aim is to determine the type of inheritance pattern that a gene follows.
Pollen grains	The male gametophyte of flowering plants.
Product rule	The probability that two or more independent events will occur is equal to the products of their individual probabilities.
Self fertilization	Fertilization that involves the union of male and female gametes derived from the same parent.
Single factor cross	A cross in which an experimenter is following the outcome of only a single trait.
stigma	The structure in flowering plants on which the pollen grain lands and the pollen tube starts to grow so that sperm cells can reach the egg cell.
Strain	A variety that continues to exhibit the same characteristic after several generations.
True breeding line	A strain of a particular species that continues to exhibit the same trait after several generations of self-fertilization (in plants) or inbreeding.
Two factor crosses	A cross in which an experimenter follows the outcome of two different traits
variant	(1) versions of a trait; (2) individuals of the same species that exhibit different traits, such as tall and dwarf pea plants.
Barr body	A structure in the interphase nuclei of somatic cells of female mammals that is a highly condensed X chromosome.
autosomes	Chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes.
Dioecious	Refers to a species of plants in which some individuals produce only male gametophytes and others produce only female gametophytes.
Dosage compensation	Refers to a species of plants in which some individuals produce only male gametophytes and others produce only female gametophytes.
Haploid-Diploid system	A mechanism of sex determination found in some species, such as bees, in which one sex is haploid (i.e., male) and the other sex is diploid (i.e., female).
Hemizygous	Describes the single copy of an X-linked gene in a male. A male mammal is said to be hemizygous for X-linked genes.
Lyon Hypothesis	A hypothesis to explain the pattern of X-chromosome inactivation seen in mammals
Protandrous hermaphrodites	An organism that first becomes a male and can later transform into a female.
Pseudoautosomal genes	Genes that are located in the regions found on both the X and Y chromosomes.
Pseudoautosomal inheritance	The inheritance pattern of genes that are found on both the X and Y chromosomes. Even though such genes are located physically on the sex chromosomes, their pattern of inheritance is identical to that of autosomal genes.
Reciprocal cross	A pair of crosses in which the traits of the two parents differ with regard to sex. For example, one cross could be a red-eyed female fly and a white-eyed male fly, and the reciprocal cross would be a red-eyed male fly and a white-eyed female fly.
sex-linked genes	A gene that is located on one of the sex chromosomes.
testcross	An experimental cross between a recessive individual and an individual whose genotype the experimenter wishes to determine.
X-chromosome inactivationn	A process in which mammals equalize the expression of X-linked genes by randomly turning off one X chromosome in the somatic cells of females.
X-inactivation center	A site on the X chromosome that appears to play a critical role in X-chromosome inactivation.
X-linked alleles	Genes (or alleles of genes) that are physically located on the X chromosome.
X-linked genes	A gene that is located on one of the sex chromosomes.
X-linked inheritance	An inheritance pattern in certain species that involves genes that are located only on the X chromosome.
X-linked recessive pattern	An inheritance pattern for an allele or trait in which the gene is found on the X chromosome and the allele is recessive relative to a corresponding dominant allele.
Y-linked genes/Holandric genes	A gene that is located on one of the sex chromosomes.

Created by: vtlove116

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Chapters 1-5

translation, DNA mutation repair, gene regulation prokaryotes & eukaryotes

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