Memory
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| Encephalitis | For a small minority of the adult population, the virus invades the central nervous system and causes a life-threatening infection.
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| Memory | The processes involved in the encoding (collection), storage, and retrieval of information
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| Memory’s general processes: | encoding, storage, and retrieval
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| Encoding | The process through which information enters our memory system. Occurs when stimuli associated with events are converted to neural activity that travels to the brain. Involves two possible paths: memory system entry or loss of stimuli
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| Storage | Preserving information for possible recollection in the future
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| Retrieval | Accessing information encoded and stored in memory
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| Levels of Processing Framework | Shallow, Intermediate, Deep
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| Deep thinking | helps create stronger memories.
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| information-processing model | conceptualizes memory as a flow of information through a series of stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and
long-term memory.
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| Sensory memory | can hold vast amounts of sensory stimuli for a sliver of time.
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| Short-term memory | can temporarily maintain and process limited information
for longer periods (about 30 seconds, if there are no distractions).
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| Long-term memory | has essentially unlimited capacity and can hold onto
information indefinitely.
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| Iconic memory (sensory) | Visual impressions that are photograph-like in their accuracy but dissolve in less than a second
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| Eidetic memory (sensory) | Ability to “see” an image or object sometimes long after it has been removed from sight with amazing specificity. Occurs primarily in children
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| Echoic memory(sensory) | Exact copies of the sounds we hear. Lasts from about 1 to 10 seconds
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| Maintenance rehearsal (short term) | Technique of repeating information to be remembered, increasing the length of time it can be held in short-term memory
Does not work well if you are distracted
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| Chunking(short term) | Grouping numbers, letters, or other items into meaningful subsets as a strategy for increasing the quantity of information that can be maintained in short-term memory
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| Working Memory | The active processing of information in short-term memory. Includes maintenance and manipulation of information. Helps us accomplish complex tasks
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| Phonological loop (Component of Working Memory) | Responsible for working with verbal information for brief periods of time
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| Visuospatial sketchpad (Component of Working Memory) | Where visual and spatial data are briefly stored and manipulated
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| Central executive (Component of Working Memory) | Directs attention, makes plans, and coordinates activities. Determines what information is used and what is ignored
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| Episodic buffer(Component of Working Memory) | Forms the bridge between memory and conscious awareness
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| Explicit Memory | A type of memory you are aware of having and can consciously express in words or declare, including memories of facts and experiences.
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| Implicit Memory | A memory of something you know or know how to do, which may be automatic, unconscious, and difficult to bring to awareness and express.
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| Semantic Memory | The memory of information theoretically available to anyone,
which pertains to general facts about the world
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| Episodic Memory | The record of memorable experiences or “episodes” including
when and where an experience occurred
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| Flashbulb Memory | Detailed account of circumstances surrounding an emotionally significant or shocking, sometimes historic, event. Frequently recall the precise moment you learned of an event Sometimes include inaccuracies or lack specific details.
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| Implicit Memory | A memory for something you know or know how to do, but which might be automatic or unconscious. Includes memories formed through classical conditioning
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| Procedural Memory | The unconscious memory of how to carry out a variety of skills and activities. Type of implicit memory
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| Mnemonics: techniques to improve memory | First-letter technique, Acronyms, Chunking
Create hierarchies, Use effortful processing, Elaborative rehearsal
Visualization, Distributed practice
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| Method of loci: | Mnemonic device in which person visualizes items to be learned with landmarks in some familiar place
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| Retrieval cues | Stimuli that aid in retrieval of information that is difficult to access
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| Priming | The stimulation of memories as a result of retrieval cues in the
environment. Made possible by implicit memory
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| Recall | Retrieving information held in long-term memory without explicit retrieval cues. More difficult than recognition
Example: short-answer test question
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| Recognition | Matching incoming data to information stored in long-term
memory. Have to identify information, rather than come up with information
Example: multiple-choice test
question
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| Serial Position Effect | The ability to recall items in a list depends on where they are in the series. Primacy effect. Recency effect
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| Encoding Specificity Principle | Memories are more easily recalled when the context and cues at the time of encoding are similar to those at the time of retrieval.
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| State-Dependent Memory | Remembering things is easier when physiological and psychological conditions, including moods and emotions, are similar at the time of encoding and retrieval.
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| Mood Congruence | Retrieval is easier when the content of a memory corresponds to our present emotional state.
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| Relearning | Material learned previously is acquired more quickly in subsequent exposures. First quantified by Hermann Ebbinghaus
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| Proactive Interference | The tendency for information learned in the past to interfere with the retrieval of new material
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| Retroactive Interference | The tendency for recently learned information to interfere with the retrieval of things learned in the past
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| Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM) | “An uncanny ability to recollect an abundance of detail pertaining to autobiographical experiences” People with HSAM can remember almost every day of their lives.
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| Reconstructionist Model of Memory | “Memories are understood as creative blendings of fact and fiction” (Loftus & Ketcham, 1994, p. 5).
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| Misinformation Effect Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) classic study | The tendency for new and misleading information to distort one’s memory of an
incident. Eyewitness accounts of accidents, crimes, and other important events might be altered by factors that come into play after the event occurs.
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| Amnesia (memory loss) | can result from either a physical or psychological condition.
Two different types and degrees of amnesia
Anterograde
Retrograde
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| retrograde amnesia | Retro means “before,” so retrograde amnesia is the
inability to retrieve memories for events that occurred before
an amnesia-causing injury.
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| anterograde amnesia | Antero means “after,” so anterograde amnesia is the inability to form memories for events that occur after an injury.
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| Lashley’s work | Sought out the memory trace (engram). The physical location where memories are stored in the brain via physiological changes
Rat research led them to adopt model of connectionism. Memories are distributed throughout the brain , interlinked neurons.
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| The Case of H.M. | Onset of seizures from an accident led to amnesia that was unresponsive to medication;opted for an experimental surgery. Removed the temporal lobes, (hippocampus). developed anterograde amnesia/ milder retrograde amnesia. maintain working implicit memory
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| The Role of the Hippocampus | Essential for creating new explicit memories not necessarily implicit memories. Memory formation may occurr
simultaneously in both the hippocampus/cortex. Responsible for young memories, passes on responsibility to other regions as memories grow older
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| Long-Term Potentiation | The increased efficiency of neural communication over time, resulting in learning and the formation of memories. May be the biological basis for learning. related to Alzheimer’s
disease. Neurofibrillary tangles Amyloid plaques
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| Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) | A neurodegenerative disease that leads to atypical deposits of tau protein throughout regions in the brain as a result of repeated mild traumatic brain injury
Symptoms: significant memory issues, impulsivity, aggression, insomnia, and depression.
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