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AP Psychology Unit 2
Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
| hindsight bias | the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) |
| critical thinking | thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. |
| theory | an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events |
| hypothesis | a testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
| operational definition | a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures |
| replication | repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances |
| case study | an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
| survey | a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group |
| population | all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.) |
| random sample | a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion |
| naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
| correlation | a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other |
| correlation coefficient | a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1 to +1) |
| scatterplot | a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. |
| illusory correlation | the perception of a relationship where none exists |
| experiment | a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) |
| random assignment | assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups |
| double-blind procedure | an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies |
| placebo effect | experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent |
| experimental group | in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable |
| control group | in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment |
| independent variable | the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied |
| confounding variable | a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment |
| dependent variable | the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable |
| mode | the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution |
| mean | the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores |
| median | the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it |
| range | the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution |
| standard deviation | a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score |
| normal curve | (normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes |
| statistical significance | a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance |
| culture | the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
| informed consent | an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate |
| debriefing | the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants |
Created by:
mbehm
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