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Microbiology 1
1 Microbiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| 3 Domains/classifications | 1. Prokaryo 2. Archaea - strong type 3. Eukaryo |
| Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell | 1. Small cells 2. No nuclear membrane - free floating DNA 3. Structures: appendages, cell envelope, cytoplasm |
| Structures of a Bacterial Cell | 1. Prokaryotic organisms 2. Unicellular 3. Reproduces through binary fission |
| What is Binary Fission? | Reproduction that ends up with 2 identical daughter cells |
| What does Binary Fission need in order to occur? | - Sufficient amount of nutrients and a good environment (stops when no more nutrients) |
| How are bacteria cells classified? (2 things) | 1. Shape 2. Arrangement |
| What shape is the Vibrios? | Comma shaped rods |
| 4 important cellular structures | 1. Cell envelope (glycocalyx, cel wall, cel membrane) 2. Nuclear Body - genetic info 3. Endospores - how they evade antibiotics 4. Flagella/pilli - communication, mobility) |
| What are the 3 layers of a Cell Envelope | 1. Glycocalyx 2. Cell Wall 3. Cell Membrane |
| Structures of the Glycocalyx (cell envelope) (2) - Pro | 1. Polysaccharides - sticky sugar; help with attachment, communication, getting things from outside to in 2. Either Slime or Capsule layer |
| Functions of the Glycocalyx (cell envelope - outer) (5) - Pro | 1. Communication between cells 2. Anchoring of cells 3. Formation of biofilms 4. Protection from pathogens 5. Involved in the immune system |
| Capsule | - Thick, definite shape - Contributes to cell virulence (what allows a cell to cause a disease) - Protection from phagocytosis and drying - Immunogenic - can mount an immune response - Some vaccines directed at capsule |
| Slime layer | - Thinner, less uniform - Protects agaisnt drying - Promotes adherence (cell-to-cell;surface) - e.g. oral bacteria and teeth |
| Cell Wall (2nd Layer of Cell Envelope) | - Provides strength agaisnt osmotic pressure - Composed of peptidoglycan (PG) - determines Gram Stain |
| 4 Steps of the Gram Stain | 1. Apply crystal violet (purple dye) 2. Apply iodine to lock colour in 3. Alcohol wash 4. Apply safranin (red dye) |
| Structures of Gram Positive (6) | 1. Peptidoglycan (PG) - 80-90% 2. Polysaccharides (sticky sugars) 3. Thick PG layer 4. No outer membrane 5. Narrow periplasmic space 6. More permeable to molecule |
| Structures of Gram Negative (7) | 1. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 2. PG - 10-50% 3. Porin protein in wall 4. Thinner PG layer 5. Outer membrane 6. Extensive periplasmic space 7. Less permeable to molecules |
| Is LPS an Endotoxin? | - Yes; an endotoxin is a toxin internal to bacterial cell, helps cause infection in host cell & more resistant |
| Cell Membrane (3rd layer of Cell Envelope) - made of? | 1. Phospholipids - bilayer, heads pointing out (likes water) 2. Proteins 3. Glycolipids 4. Hopanoids - like cholesterol in humans |
| Functions of the Cell Membrane (4) | 1. Structual support 2. Metabolic functions 3. Regulates transports 4. Role in immune response |
| Cytoplasm | - Site of biochemical and synthetic activities (reactions occur, requires water) - 70-80% water - Solvent for cell nutrients - Contains cellular structures such as the nucleoid (single chromosom) and ribosoms |
| Nuclear Body | - Single chromosome strand = nuceloid - No nuclear membrane - Free floating DNA |
| Plasmids | - Extra chromosomal genetic info - Either free floating or in chromosome - Can be duplicated and passed onto offspring - Offers protective traits to bacteria |
| Ribosomes | - Protein synthesis - Made of RNA and protein - Throughout cytoplasm and on cell membranes - Usually in chains (polysomes) |
| Endospores | - Thick walled and resistance; purpose of survival |
| What are the 2 stages of endospores? | 1. Vegetative Cell 2. Endospore |
| Vegetative Cells | When environmental conditions are still good, putting energy into feeding and storing nutrients - When environmental conditions worsten = starts sporulation |
| 5 Steps of Sporulation | 1. Vegetative cell threatened 2. DNA copied & put towards end of cell (septation) 3. Sporangium engulfs forespore 4. Protective layer forms around 5. Sporangium deteriorates and releases spore |
| Germination = What is needed to reactivate the vegetative cell (4) | 1. Nutrients 2. H2O and a germinating agent 3. Digestive enzymes; exposes core to H2O 4. Spore rehydrates and releases vegetative cell |
| Appendages | - Allow for movement |
| Flagella - appendage | - Whip like motion (like helicopter) - Composed of protein flagellin |
| 3 Parts of a Flagella | 1. Filament - end of whip; long and thin 2. Hook - at the end of flagellum, anchored to basal body 3. Basal Body - rod with 1+ pairs of disk |
| Arrangement of Flagella (4) | 1. Monotrichous - single flagellum at one end 2. Lophotrichous - multiple flagellum from one end 3. Amphitrichous - both ends 4. Pertichous - all over surface |
| Periplasmic Flagella | - Internal flagella; on spirochetes - 2 long coiled threads, inbetween cell wall and membrane - Twisting motion (like itsy bitsy spider) |
| Pili - appendage | - Like bristle hair (like cilia) - Composed of protein pillin - Has point of attachments (to eachother or surfaces) |
| Sex pili | - Allows transfer of genetic info between organisms (through asexual process) |
| Bacterial Growth Requirements (3) | 1. Nurtients 2. Atmospheric 3. Temperature |
| Heterotrophs - Nutritional Requirement of Bacterial Growth | - Uses carbon from ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 1. Photoheterotrophs - gets energy from sunlight 2. Chemoheterotrophs - gets energy & carbon from organic compounds |
| Autotrophs - Nutritional Requirement of Bacterial Growth | - Uses carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide 1. Photoautotrophs - gets energy from sunlight 2. Chemoautotrophs - gets energy from carbon compounds |
| What are the 6 Atmospheric requirements (for bacteria) | 1. Obligate Aerobes 2. Obligate Anaerobes 3. Facultative Anaerobes 4. Aerotolerant Anaerobes 5. Microaerophiles 6. Capnophiles |
| Obligate Aerobes - atm requirements (for bacteria growth) | - Grow only in the presence of oxygen - Aerobic cellular respiration |
| Obligate Anaerobes - atm requirements (for bacteria growth) | - Doesn't rely on oxygen |
| Facultative Anaerobes - atm requirements (for bacteria growth) | - Grows with or without oxygen - w/ oxygen = aerobic respiration - w/out oxygen = fermentation |
| Aerotolerant Anaerobes - atm requirements (for bacteria growth) | - Can grow in the presence of oxygen, but cannot use it - Through fermentation |
| Microaerophiles - atm requirements (for bacteria growth) | - Requires low concentration of oxygen (can't live in normal air) |
| Capnophiles - atm requirements (for bacteria growth) | - Requires more carbon dioxide than in regular air - More acidic environment |
| What are the 4 Temperature Requirements (for bacteria growth) | 1. Mesophiles 2. Thermophiles 3. Psychrophiles 4. Psychrotrophs |
| Mesophiles - temp requirement (for bacteria growth) | - Moderate temp; 25 - 40 degrees celsius |
| Thermophiles - temp requirement (for bacteria growth) | - Hotter temp; 45+ |
| Psychrophiles - temp requirement (for bacteria growth) | - Colder temp; 0 or lower |
| Psychrotophs - temp requirement (for bacteria growth) | - Grows slowly at 0, but optimal growth at 25-30 - Food spoilage |
| Generation time - bacteria growth | - Length of time required for binary fission to take place |
| 4 Phases of Bacteria Growth | 1. Lag Phase 2. Log/Exponential growth phase 3. Stationary Phase 4. Death Phase |
| Lag Phase | - 1st phase; not a lot pf growth (before) |
| Log/Exponential growth phase | - 2nd phase - rapid replication, ends due to lack of nutrients |
| Stationary Phase | - 3rd phase - # of new organisms = #of dying organisms |
| Death Phase | - 4th phase - bacteria lose ability to reproduce (even with good environment) |
| 3 examples of Unusual Prokaryotes | 1. Chlamydia 2. Rickettsiae 3. Mycoplasmas |
| Chlamydia | - Gram-negative - Rod or coccus shaped; coccobacillus (kind of both) - Must have intracellular parasites (live inside host cell) - Cannot synthesize own ATP |
| What are the 2 'bodies' of the Chlamydia replication cycle | 1. Elementary bodies (infectious form) 2. Reticulate bodies (growth form) |
| Replication Cycle (steps) of Chlamydia (6) | 1. EB attaches to host cell 2. Host cell ingests EB, housing in an inclusion (sac) 3. EB reorganizes to form a reticulate body (RB) 4. RB divides, producing multiple RBs 5. Rbs convert back to EB 6. Eb released from host cell through lysis (bursting) |
| Rickettsiae | - Small rods or coccobacilli - Contains RNA & DNA - Slime layer interferes with gram stain |
| Obligate Intracellular Parasite | - Needs host cell |
| How do Ricketsiae reproduce? | - Binary Fission - Transmitted by arthropod vectors (adding another organism to help them live) |
| Mycoplasmas | - More in hospitals - Both DNA & RNA - No cell wall (pleomorphic) - Falculative Anaerobes (w/ or w/out oxygen) - Acid fast stain (since no cell wall) |
| Acid Fast Stain | - Used for when no Cell Wall - Has ++mycolic acid (instead of PG) - Use red dye to stain (carbol fuchsin) - Acid-alcohol locks in colour (because of cell membrane lipids) - Other organisms colour blue/green |
| Archaea - Other Prokaryotes | - More closely to Eukarya than Bacteria - Unique genetic sequences in rRNA - Can survive harsh conditions (adapts to heat, salt, acid pH, changes in pressure and atmosphere) - Hyperthermophiles (hot areas) - Methane produces-sulfur reducers |
| What are the 3 types of Eukaryote Cells? | 1. Protists (protozoa) - Single-celled organisms lacking complex organization 2. Fungi (myceteae) - single or multi cellular; yeasts and mold 3. Plant and Animal |
| Eukaryotic Structures (9) | 1. Glycolcalyx 2. Cell Membrane 3. Nucleus 4. Mitochondria 5. ER 6. Golgi 7. Vacuoles 8. Cytoskeleton 9. With or without Cell Wall |
| Locomotor Appendages | - Only on some - External - Covered by extension of cell membrane - 9 pairs + 2 microtubular arrangment - Linked together by protein arms (pairs of circles on outside pic) |
| How do Flagellar locomotion move? | 1. Whipping back and fourth 2. Twirling 3. Lashing out |
| Cilia - Function | 1. Motility 2. Feeding 3. Filtering - in rows over surface; sway - help move things back and forth |
| Glycocalyx - Euk | - Outermost (comes in contact with extracellular environment) - Network of polysaccharides fibres - Slime layer OR capsule |
| Glycocalyx - Functions (Euk) (3) | 1. Protection to cell 2. Allows adherence/attachment to diff surfaces 3. Receive signals |
| Cell Wall (Euk) | - Fungi & Algae - Provides structure and shape - Composed of Chitin (polysaccharide), glycoprotein, mixed glycans (molecules that can adhere to other molecules) |
| Cell Membrane (Euk) | - Bilayer of phospolipids & sterole (heads out - H2O loving) - 2 proteins - 1. Peripheral 2. Integral - Provides stability to cells lacking a cell wall - Selectively permeable |
| Nucleus | - Actually in eukaryotic cells (not in prokaryo) - rRNA synthesis - Surrounded by double membrane = nuclear envelope - Membrane contains pores which allows certain molecules to pas through |
| Chromatin | - Dark granules (chromosomes) seen throughout the nucleus - In nucleus |
| Haploid | - Single & unpaired nucleus |
| Diploid | - Chromosome that are matched or paired |
| Mitosis - 5 stages | 1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase 5. Cytokinesis |
| Prophase - Mitosis | - Chromosomes become visible - Centrioles go towards opposite sides of cell - Spindle fibres form (from cytoskeleton) - Nuclear membrane disappears |
| Metaphase - Mitosis | - Chromosomes line up on equator - Spindle fibres attach to centromeres of chromosomes |
| Anaphase - Mitosis | - Centromeres split and sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles |
| Telophase - Mitosis | - New nuclear membrane forms - Nucleolus reappears - Furrowing of cell membrane |
| Cytokinesis - Mitosis | - Cytoplasm divides to complete cell division |
| Interphase - Mitosis | - Periods between mitotic divisions - Chromosomes less organized; appear as chromatin - Divided into 2 gap and synthesis phases |
| Rough ER | - Transport materials from nucleus to cytoplasm - Protein are synthesized on ribosomes |
| Smooth ER | - Involved in synthesis and storage of non-protein molecules (ie lipids, carbs) |
| Golgi Apparatus | - Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins - Produces lysosomes and various secretory vesicles |
| Lysosomes | - Vesicles; originate from Golgi - Contain enzymes (Peroxisomes - oxidative enzymes used to removes toxins) - Intracellular digestion of food particles - Protects agaisnt invading microorganisms - Removes cellular debris |
| Vacuoles | - Membrane bound sac - Contains fluids or solid particles to be digested, excreted, or stored |
| Lysosomes + Vacuoles = ? | Phagosomes - aids in digestions of nutrients to gain nutrients |
| Mitochondria | - Powerhouse of cell - Makes ATP via electron transport chain - Divides independently through binary fission (without cell) - Contains its own strand of DNA |
| Structures of the Mitochondria | 1. Smooth, continuous out membrane 2. Cristae - folded inner membrane; contains enzymes and electron carriers of aerobic respiration |
| Chloroplasts | - In algae and plant cells - photoautotrophs (uses air to make carbon & sunlight for energy) - Oxygen produced as a by-product |
| 2 Structures of the Chloroplast | 1. 2 membranes - Smooth outer membrane - Folded inner membrane - thylakoids 2. Stroma matrix around thylakoids - Has its own genetic info, can divide without cell cycle |
| Cytoskeleton | - Helps provide support - Flexible framework of molecules |
| 6 Functions of the Cytoskeleton | 1. Anchors organelles 2. Provides support 3. Produces movement of cytoplasm 4. Important role in intracellular transport 5. Forms spindle fibres 6. Movement of the cell as a unit |
| Ribosomes | - Site of protein synthesis - Scattered freely in cytoplasm or with RER - Similar structure to prokayotic ribosomes but larger |
| Fungi | - Includes mold, mushrooms, and yeasts - Heterotrophs - from organic compound - Scavengers |
| Fungi - Structure | - Unicellular or multicellular - Cell walls contain chitin (instead of PG) - Can join together - colonies |
| Fungi - Reproduction | - Sexually or asexually - Spore formation (sexually) OR budding (asexually) |
| Fungi - environmentally (what are they and how do they get their nutrients) | - Live as saphrophytes/saprobes (scavengers/decomposers) - Nutrients through absorption - organic compounds |
| Human Fungal Pathogens (3 Classifications) | 1. Yeast - in body; like warmth 2. Mold - environmentally; like cold 3. Dimorphic fungi - very adaptable |
| Yeasts (reproduction? cellular?) | - Unicellular microorganisms - Asexual (budding - similar to binary fission) - Best in moist environment |
| Molds | - Multicellular microorganisms - Asexual - Develop characteristic hyphae - Hyphae grow to form a mycelium (e.g. white mold on tomatoe) |
| Hyphae | 1. Septate - divided/separate into distinct cell-like units 2. Coenocytic - no septal divisions |
| Asexual Reproduction - fungi | - similar to binary fission (for yeast) - molds reproduce by fragmentation (little pieces break off) of their hyphae and by spore formation |
| Asexual Spore Formation (2 types) | 1. Sporangiospores - form inside a sac (sporangium); spores released when sporangium ruptures 2. Conidia - produced at tips/sides of hyphae; pinch/break off and then travel |
| Sexual Reproduction - fungi | - When nutrients are limited - Can be dispersed/travel widely throughout environment by air, H2O, and other organisms - Germinates when good conditions |
| +mycelium and -mycelium =? (sexual reproduction) | = dikaryon; then divides by meiosis to end up with variations |
| What do the 2 forms of Dimorphic Fungi depend on? | - Grows in 2 forms; depends on the temperature |
| 2 Forms of Dimorphic Fungi | 1. Mold with septate hyphae @ 25 degree celsius (low) 2. Yeast in tissues @ 37 degree celsius (high) |
| Systemic Mycoses | - Infection through blood stream |
| Fungal Growth Requirements | - Heterotrophs - mostly saprobes/saprophytes (scavengers/decomposers) - Can be parasitic (needs host cell) - Aerobic - Some yeasts are facultative anaerobic (w/ or w/out oxygen) |
| 4 Different types of fungal infection diseases | 1. Superficial mycoses 2. Lutaneous mycoses 3. Subcutaneous mycoses 4. Systemic infections (inhaling then goes through bloodstream) |
| Superficial Mycoses | - Tineas = infection of epidermis - Waits for a weakened immune host - Usually direct contact (e.g. attacks melanocytes/pigments) |
| Cutaneous Mycoses | - Infections extend deeper into epidermis - Involves stratum corneum and occasionally upper dermis |
| Subcutaneous Mycoses | - Occurs after a puncture (poked with something that has fungus on it) - Fungus invades the deeper layers of the dermis |
| Systemic Mycoses | - Fungal infection which spreads throughout the body - Portal = respiration then bloodstream |
| Mycotoxins | - Chemical by-products from fungal metabolism - Ingesting contaminated food |
| Long term ingestion of Mycotoxins can cause 3 things | 1. Liver & Kidney damage 2. Gastrointestinal or gynecological disturbances 3. Cancer |
| Protozoa | - Kingdom Protists - Unicellular or colonial organisms - Contains major eukaryotic organelles (EXCEPT chloroplasts) |
| Structural Features of Protozoa | - Cytoplasm into 2 layers 1. Ectoplasm (clear outer layer involved in locomotion, feeding, and protection) 2. Endoplasm (granular inner layer w/ nucleus. mitochondria, and vacuoles) - No cell wall; but has cell membrane |
| Locomoter Appendages in Protozoa (3) | 1. Flagella 2. Cilia 3. Pseudopods - cytoplasm flows into 'fake feet' = migrates into diff directions |
| Nutrition of Protozoa (how do they get their carbon, what do they need, etc) | - Heterotrophic Organisms - Uses live cells of bacteria and algae - Scavengers - Some parasitic - Trophozoite stage = active feeding stage - no vegetative stage |
| Habitat of Protozoa | - In fresh and marine water, soil, plants, and animals - Converts to a resistant dormant stage when feeding/growth are harsh (go out into cyst until environment is better) |
| Virion | - Fully formed virus that's able to now establish infections in a host cell |
| Basic Structure of a Virus | - Capsid (protein coat) - Nucleic acid - DNA or RNA (single or double) |
| How do Viruses multiply? (general) | - By taking over a host's cells genetic material (since they're not living organelles) |
| Capsid (protein shell) + nucleic acid (genetic info) = ? | - Nucleocapsid |
| Do viruses always have an envelope? | - Not always |
| What are CAPSIDs made out of? | - Proteins called capsomeres |
| What are the 2 capsomere arrangements? | 1. Helical - like a tin can looking 2. Icosahedron - Diamond/spider looking one |
| How are the Icosahedron Capsules formed? | - 12 spaced corners - 20 triangular faces - 30 edges |
| How is the viral envelope formed? | - By budding through a host membrane |
| What's on the outside of a viral envelope? | - Glycoproteins |
| What do the spikes do on a virus? | - Viral attachment to host cell (remember it has lock and key) |
| What does the viral envelope do? | - Attacks - Protects nucleic acid from enzymes and chemicals outside of host cell - Infects viral DNA/RNA into host cell - Can also stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that protect the host cell agaisnt future infections |
| What are the 2 atypical/complex viruses? | 1. Poxviruses 2. Bacteriophages |
| What are proxviruses? And its 3 features? (Think of hamburger shaped) | - Large DNA viruses that lack a capsid 1. Nucleoid - central disk structure, sorrounded by membrane and 2 lateral bodies 2. Lateral bodies - contains enzymes for viral replication (penetration) 3. Lipoproteins & Coarse fibrils - densed layer |
| What are Bacteriophages? | - Viruses that only infect bacterial cells (what allows bacterial cells for getting drug resistance - bc they pick up virus DNA) |
| What are the 2 structures of a Bacteriophages? | 1. Icosahedral Head - contains nucleic acid 2. Tail - Has attached fibres, sometimes surrounded by sheaths (for protection) |
| Genome | - Part of Nucleic Acid - Is sum of all genetic info (DNA/RNA - single or double) - Carried by nucleic acid |
| Viral Enzyme Functions (3) | 1. Polymerases - form large polymers (DNA or RNA) - attachment 2. Replicases - copy DNA 3. Reverse Transcriptase - allows the synthesis of DNA from RNA ase - enzyme |
| 6 Animal Virus Life Cycle | 1. Adsorption 2. Penetration 3. Uncoating 4. Replication 5. Assembly 6. Release |
| Adsorption (1st step) | - Cell membrane receptors specific to viral configurations (lock & key) - Host Range - limits virus of being able to cross over sometimes (from characteristics of cell) |
| Penetration (2nd step) | - Direct fusion of virus with host cell membrane (nucleocapsid released into cell's interior) |
| Uncoating (3rd step) | - Endocytosis - cell membrane engulfs liquid or solid material into a vacuole - Vacuole enzymes dissolve viral envelope and capsid uncoating nucleic acid (Into vacuole - then enzymes uncoat it) |
| Replication (4th step) | - Viral nucleic acids take over host cell's synthetic and metabolic machinery |
| Assembly (5th step) | - Nucleic acid strand inserted into empty capsid shell = nucleocapsid formation - Viral spikes added on when leaving/budding off |
| Release (6th step) | - Lyses = non-enveloped - Budding/exocytosis = get envelope from membrane when leaving |
| Replication/Multiplication of Bacteriophages | - Similiar to animal viruses but no uncoating phase; instead injected in (since its like a spider thingy) |
| Retrovirus - What do they do? | - Uses RNA as a template to produce viral DNA (as a template) - Has 2 copies of ssRNA & reverse transcriptase |
| Retrovirus Multiplication Cycle (4) | 1. Retrovirus penetrates host cell 2. After uncoating reverse transcription of the viral RNA produces dsDNA 3. New viral DNA is transported into host cell nucleus; integrated as provirus & then replicate 4. Mature retrovirus leaves, acquires envelope |
| What is a Morphological (Cytopathic) effect? | - Changes in the shape of a host cell caused by a viral infection |
| What are the 6 Morphological (Cytopathic) effects? | 1. Altered Shape 2. Detachment from tissue surface 3. Lysis 4. Membrane Fusion 5. Altered membrane permeability 6. Apoptosis (programmed cell death?) |
| What is a inclusion body? | - Compacted masses/debris of viruses or damaged cell organelles (DNA - nucleus; RNA - cytoplasm) |
| What are the 3 Host Cell's Damages? | 1. Physiological Effect 2. Biochemical Effect 3. Genotoxic Effect |
| What is the Physiological Effect? | - Addition of viral proteins into plasma membrane; changes of characteristics and/or functions leading to altered cellular activities |
| What is the Biochemical Effect? | - Inhibition or alteration of host cell's macromolecules (e.g. lipids, fats, carbs) |
| What is the Genotoxic Effect? | - Affects future generation - Genotoxic substances can damage host cell DNA - Teratogenic Effect - mutation - Potential start of cancer |
| What are the 5 Viral Infections? | 1. Abortive Infections 2. Lytic (cytocidal) Infection 3. Persistant Infections 4. Slow Infections 5. Transforming Infections |
| What is the Abortive Infection? | - When the virus can latch on, but cannot proceed further because the host cell is non-permissive (cannot reproduce) |
| What is the Lytic (Cytocidal) Infection? | - Infection of permissive cells which kill the host - Allows virus to hijack metabolic machinery |
| What are the 2 Persistant Infections? | 1. Chronic- productive but not lytic 2. Latent - has a dorment stage/ like chicken pox and turburculosis) |
| What is a Slow Infection? | - Prolonged incubation period |
| What is the Transforming Infection? | - Alters cell properties |
| What is a Oncogenic Transformation? | - Genetic modification of cell proliferation control - tumour cells |
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