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Chapter 2
Neuroanatomy
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Meninges | Membranes that surround the nervous system. |
| What are the layers of meninges, skin first? | Dura mater, arachnoid membrane (+ subarachnoid space), and pia mater |
| Subarachnoid space | Space filled with cerebrospinal fluid between the arachnoid membrane and pia mater |
| What is the difference in the peripheral nerves' protection? | They have no arachnoid layer or subarachnoid space. |
| What does the CSF circulatory system consist of? | The lateral ventricles in each hemisphere, the third and fourth ventricles in the brain stem (the 3rd is dorsal to the 4th) and the central canal of the spinal cord (ventral to the 4th). The choroid plexus, lining of the ventricles, produces CSF. |
| Role of CSF | It essentially floats the brain within the skull. Since pressure can cause neurons to fire, the CSF prevents neurons from responding to pressure and providing false information. |
| What is hydrocephalus and how can it be treated? | A blockage of CSF that causes it to build up in the brain. It is treated by the installation of a shunt that drains off excess CSF. |
| Spinal tap | Procedure by which CSF is extracted. A physician withdraws some fluid from the subarachnoid space surrounding the spinal cord with a needle. Used to detect diseases |
| What arteries serve the brain? | The carotid arteries on either side of the neck or the vertebral arteries that travel up through the back of they skull. They branch out to form the anterior, middle and posterior cerebral arteries. |
| Central nervous system | Includes the brain and spinal cord |
| Peripheral nervous system | Comprises all the nerves that exit the brain and spinal cord, carrying sensory and motor messages to and from the other parts of the body. |
| What is the difference between neurons in the CNS and PNS? | 1. PNS has no arachnoid layer and subarachnoid soace and thus no CSF. 2. Damage to the CNS is permanent but recovery can occur in the PNS. |
| Spinal cord | A long cylinder of nerve tissue that extends from the medulla down to the first lumbar vertebra, a bone in the spine. |
| What is the vertebral column? | Another name for the spine, which encloses and protects the spinal cord. |
| Why is the spinal cord shorter than the spine? | The spinal cord stops growing earlier in childhood development. |
| There are 31 segments in the spinal cord. Describe the various groups of segments. | Brain first: 1. 8 cervical nerves serve the head, neck and arms. 2. 12 thoracic nerves serve most of the torso. 3. 5 lumbar nerves serve the lower back and legs. 4. 5 sacral nerves serve back of the legs and genitals 5. 1 coccygeal nerve |
| White matter | The axons of neurons. White is the colour of myelin. |
| Gray matter | Cell bodies. They form a gray H shape in the spinal cord cross section. The rest is white. |
| Gray matter in the spinal cord | Neurons in the dorsal horns of 'H' (towards the butt) receive sensory input. Neurons in the ventral horns pass motor info on to the muscles; they participate in spinal reflexes. |
| Patellar reflex | Alternative name for knee jerk when tapping the knee. Involves two neurons: a sensory neuron and a spinal motor neuron - contracts a muscle in response to input from the other neuron. |
| Withdrawal reflex | Pulling away from something hot. Involves 3 neurons: sensory, motor and interneuron. |
| Embryological development of the brain. | 1. Division into hindbrain (rhomocephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon) and forebrain (prosencephalon) 2. Division of hindbrain into medulla (myelencephalon) and pons & cerebellum (metencephalon) 3. Division of forebrain into diencephalon and telenceph |
| Medulla (metencephalon) | Made up mostly of white matter. Contains nuclei that make up several cranial nerves serving the head and neck area as well as functions such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. |
| Reticular formation | Found in midline of upper midline of medulla and midbrain. Regulates consciousness, arousal, movement and pain. |
| Pons (part of metencephalon) | "Bridge": forms connections betwern the medulla, cerebellum and higher brain centers. Contains raphe nucleus, vestibular nucleus, cochlear nucleus, reticular formation and locus coerulus. |
| Cochlear nucleus | Found in pons. Recieves information about sound. |
| Vestibular nucleus (vestibular means balance) | In pons. Receives information about the position and movement of the head: helps us keep balance. |
| Raphe nucleus and locus coerulus | Project widely to the rest of the brain. Influences mood, states of arousal and sleep. |
| Cerebellum (metencephalon) | "Tree": White matter is trunk and branches, gray matter is the leaves. Has more neurons than the rest of the brain combined. Coordinates voluntary movements, maintaining muscle tone and regulates balance, and higher functions too eg learning. |
| How does the cerebellum coordinate movement? | 1. Input from the spinal cord tells location of body in 3D space. 2. Input from Cerebral cortex thru pons tells movements you want to.make 3. Cerebellum processes sequences and timings of muscle movements to carry it out. |
| Midbrain (Mesencephalon) | Two halves: tectum (dorsal) and tegmentum (ventral). Contains cerebral aqueduct, periaqueductal gray, red nucleus and substantia nigra, superior colliculi and inferior colliculi. |
| Dentate nucleus & neodentate | Structure within the cerebellum. It has grown with the size of the cerebellum. It is responsible for planning, initiation and control of voluntary movements. |
| Cerebral aqueduct | Seperates the tectum from the tegmentum and links the 3rd and 4th ventricles. Contains CSF. |
| Periaqueductal gray (peri means around) | Cell bodies surrounding the cerebral aqueduct. It is responsible for the perception of pain. Receptors here respond to opiates, which relieve pain. Electrical stimulation here provides relief from pain. |
| Red nucleus | Located within the reticular formation in the midbrain. It communicates motor information between the spinal cord and the cerebellum. Gives rise to rubrospinal tract - alternate pathway for voluntary movement commands. |
| Substantia nigra | "Black stuff": due to neuromelanin in dopaminergic neurons. Closely connected wih the basal ganglia of the forebrain. Has important role in reward and movement. Degeneration caused by Parkinson's = difficulties in initiating movement. |
| Superior and inferior colliculi | 4 bumps on the tectum of the midbrain - upper two are superior colliculi. They receive input from the optic nerves leaving the eye. They allow us to make visually guided movements and participate in visual reflexes e.g. pupil dilation. |
| Inferior colliculi | Other pair of bumps on the tectum. They are involved with hearing. They form part of the pathway from the ear to the auditory cortex. They also participate in auditory reflexes and localization of sounds. |
| Divisions of the forebrain | Diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus) and telencephalon (left and right hemispheres) |
| Thalamus (two thalamic nuclei, upper portion of diencephalon) | Receives sensory and regulatory input from other parts; forwards sensory input to the cerebral cortex; thalamus acts as filter depending on arousal. Reticular formation and cortex connections regulate sensitivity. Participates in learning and memory. |
| Hypothalamus (means "below thalamus") | A collection of nuclei. Regulatory center for hunger (ventromedial nucleus VMH), thirst, sex, biorhythms (suprachiasmatic nucleus) and temperature control. Also regulates endocrine system (pituitary gland), and directs the automomous NS (glands, organs). |
| Components of basal ganglia (ganglion = collection of cell bodies) | Contains the caudate nucleus & putamen (striatum), globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra and nucleus accumbens (ventral striatum). Also referred to as corpus striatum. |
| Role of basal ganglia | Selects and enables the execution of motor programs and other cognitive programs by the cortex. It is also involved with forming and using implicit (unconscious) memories. |
| Role of Limbic system ("limbic lobe") | Located on border of cerebral cortex with subcortical areas. Its structures play significant roles in learning, motivated behaviour and emotion. |
| Parts of limbic system | Anterior & posterior cingulate cortex, hypothalamus, septal area, hypothalamus, fornix, mammilary body, hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus and olfactory bulb. |
| Hippocampus (limbic system) | Curves around from midline to temporal lobe. It participates in learning and memory. |
| Amygdala (limbic system) | Anterior end of hippocampus. Plays important roles in emotion: fear, rage and aggression, as well as motivation. Receives input from all senses and viscera, and sends information to other limbic structures. |
| Hypothalamus (limbic system) | Controls emotions for eating, deinking and sex. It also produces our fight-or-flight response to emergencies. |
| Cingulate cortex (limbic system) (cingulum means belt in Latin) | Fold of cortical tissue on the inner surface of the cerebral hemispheres. Contains von Economo neurons, which play significant roles in empathy, social awareness and self-control. |
| Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC, limbic system) | Influences autonomic functions. Has important roles in decision making, error detection, emotion, anticipation of reward and empathy. It also processes emotional info about pain. |
| Posterior cingulate cortex (PCC, limbic system) | Participates in functions like eye movements, spatial orientation and memory. |
| Septal area (limbic system) | Located anterior to the thalamus and hypothalamus. Participates in reward. |
| Oldactory bulbs (limbic system) | Located at base of forebrain. Receive and process information about smell (smell is emotional). |
| Parahippocampal gyrus, mamillary bodies and fornix (limbic system) | A fold of tissue near the hippocampus; located in the diencephalon; fiber pathway connecting the mamillary bodies and the gyrus. They are tightly connected structures that participate in memory processes. |
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