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PSY 100 Exam 4
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Three main types of development | physical, cognitive, socio-emotional |
| Cross-sectional | examine people of different ages at one point in time. Efficient but groups may differ in ways other than age (cohort effects) |
| Longitudinal | examine same people at different ages. Can investigate age changes but time-consuming, attrition |
| Prenatal development | Germinal period Embryonic period Fetal period Gametes Zygote Amnion Umbilical cord |
| Neurogenesis and neuronal migration | 250,000 neurons form/minute then the neurons move to different places in the brain and form connections |
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome | can cause mental retardation |
| Factors that affect effects of teratogens | dose, developmental period, individual differences (e.g., genes, age, nutrition) |
| Cephalocaudal Principle | things at the top of the body develop more before things at the bottom of the body |
| Proximodistal Principle | things closer to the center of the body develop more before things further away from the body (arms before fingers) |
| Developmental norms | what’s the norm of development for things |
| Brain development | When neurons are formed- before birth Increase in brain weight- doubles in weight in the first year and grows until 18 Connections- gray matter increases in childhood, but decreases in adolescence (synaptic pruning) Myelin- continues to grow into 20’s |
| Visual Cliff | six-month-old’s reluctant to cross the cliff (and infants too young to crawl) seem to recognize the cliff |
| Visual Preference Technique | can be used to test vision, preferences, memory (spend less time looking at old stimuli?) |
| Hypothalamus | directs pituitary to directs gonads (testes, ovaries) to release hormones (male-testosterone, female-estradiol) |
| Rapid growth | girls-3.5 in/year and start earlier (10-12), boys 4 in/year (12-14) |
| Primary and secondary sexual characteristics | changes in reproductive organs and things like breast development, widening of hips, deeper voices, facial hair |
| Effects of timing of puberty | early for boys could cause positive body image, for girls less happy with body image, could create problems (alcohol, cigarettes, sexual behavior, depression) |
| Early adulthood (20-40) | Physical peak (hand strength, faster reaction time, better vision), Accidents most common cause of death |
| Middle adulthood (40-60) | Gray hair, presbyopia, menopause |
| Late adulthood (60+) | Impaired dark adaptation, hearing loss, chronic diseases |
| Language development | cooing-2/3 mo, babbling-6 mo, holophrastic speech-12 mo, telegraphic speech-18 mo, rapid increase in vocabulary-18mo to 6 years, complete sentences-3 years |
| Underextension | word applied too narrowly (only our dog) |
| Overextension | word applied too broadly (all animals are doggie) |
| Overregularization | using a word too much |
| Learning Perspective vs. Nativist Perspective | imitation and reinforcement (nothing special about language) vs the Language Acquisition Device |
| Interactionist Perspective | both nature and nurture |
| Schemas | knowledge structures |
| Assimilation and accommodation | fitting in new knowledge and not having to change anything to remember (straw instead of a bottle vs tipping cup or fish vs dolphin) Accommodation requires change |
| Sensorimotor (Birth-2 years) | Learn that actions have consequences Develop object permanence (just because you can’t see something doesn’t mean its not there) |
| Preoperational (2-7) | Learn to us symbols (to pretend) Problems with operations and conservation |
| Theory of mind and egocentrism | answer with own perspective on Three Mountains Task, answer that others know what they know on False Belief Task |
| Concrete operational (7-11) | Understand conservation but have problems with abstract and hypothetical thinking |
| Formal operational (12+) | Can think abstractly and hypothetically, hypothetico-deductive reasoning (understanding things like scientific method) |
| Imaginary Audience | the idea that everyone is watching them, everyone notices everything |
| Personal Fable | unique experiences, nobody understands what they’re going through |
| Illusion of Invulnerability or cognitive skills? | risky/dangerous behavior, cognitive not fully developed until after 20 |
| Kohlberg’s Model of Moral Development | Preconventional (decisions based on rewards and punishments), Conventional (decisions based on societal norms), Postconventional (decisions based on abstract moral principles) |
| Post-formal thought | some answers depend on circumstance |
| Reflective Judgment Model | Prereflective (accept things uncritically (saw it on TV, read it on the internet)), Quasireflective (people have different points of views on things), Reflective (evidence favors view) |
| Changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence | processing vs knowledge, fluid declines with time but crystallized increases |
| Ten-year rule | takes 10 years to become an expert on something |
| Cognitive changes in late adulthood | Decline in processing speed and memory, but intelligence declines are after 60 and are gradual, Changes depend on health, cognitive stimulation, distance from death (terminal decline) |
| Dementia | cognitive decline caused by neurological damage, Alzheimer’s most common, caused by declining brain activity, genetic mutations, aluminum exposure, processed food (5% from 71-79 and 37.4% of people 90+ had dementia) |
| Attachment | strong emotional bond that develops between the child and caregiver |
| Harlow’s work with monkeys | baby monkeys could cling to wire “mother” or a cloth covered “mother”, regardless of where the food came from they would cling to the cloth one |
| Internal working models | guide for future relationships |
| Strange Situation Paradigm | Parent leaves 12-month-old with toys leaves and returns, behavior at reunion is crucial to assessing attachment, Secure attachment: 65%, insecure |
| Thomas and Chess’ three types of temperament | easy, difficult (more likely to have insecure attachments), slow to warm up |
| Reciprocal socialization | parents influence children and children influence parents |
| Parenting styles | parents vary on responsiveness (R) and demandingness (D); Authoritarian (low R, high D), Authoritative (high R, high D (yields best outcomes)), Permissive Indulgent (high R, low D), Permissive Uninvolved (low R, low D) |
| Self-recognition | by the age of 2, children seem to recognize themselves in a mirror and use personal pronouns(I/me) |
| Gender identity | possibly as early as age 2 children know whether they are a boy or girl, not merely upbringing (Bruce couldn’t be raised as Brenda) |
| Gender stereotypes | beliefs about males and females (e.g., boys are strong and good at math, girls are sweet and good at language) |
| Gender roles | behaviors/positions in society associated with being male or female (e.g., fathers are male, and mothers are female, but also firefighters are male and nurses are female) |
| Gender typing | internalization of gender roles |
| Marriage | Average age for first marriage increasing (23 for men/21 for women) |
| Benefits | life satisfaction, psychological health, lower risk of death |
| Predictors of marital satisfaction | communal norm (don’t keep track of things, doing things because they want to), not living together before marriage, less negative forgiveness (holding a grudge), higher sexual frequency and satisfaction |
| Problems with cohabitation | lower psychological well-being, lower happiness, more conflict, greater violence |
| Cohabitation effect and explanations | couples that cohabit have more problems after marriage (e.g., difficulties in problem solving, lower relationship quality, lower commitment, greater likelihood of divorce). Explanations |
| Barnum Effect | to be useful, measurements of personality must not by only accurate, but must also identify individual differences |
| Internal consistency | do the items correlate? |
| Split half | does on half correlate with the other half? |
| Coefficient alpha | the average of all possible split halves |
| Test-retest reliability | are the scores stable over time? |
| Inter-rater reliability | do different raters identify the same score? |
| Construct validity | does the test measure the construct? |
| Criterion validity | does it relate to a “real world” outcome? (ex: are scores on a test of conscientiousness correlated with GPA?) |
| Content validity | does it cover the domain? (ex: a test on chapters 1-3 lacks content validity if it has no questions from chapter 2?) |
| Convergent/discriminant validity | is it related to similar constructs and unrelated to dissimilar constructs? (ex: is a test of extraversion correlated with a test of friendliness [convergent] but not correlated with a test of intelligence? [discriminant]) |
| Psychodynamic perspective | Developed by Freud, emphasized the influence of unconscious forces, importance of early childhood experiences, and influence sexuality, difficult to test empirically, comprehensive and thought-provoking, less credible today, structure of personality |
| Id | operates according to the Pleasure Principle |
| Ego | operates according to the Reality Principle |
| Superego | internalizes ethics and moral principles |
| Psychosexual development | children go through stages where sexual pleasure comes from different parts of the body |
| Oral stage | pleasure comes from the mouth (e.g., nursing) |
| Anal stage | pleasure with regard to urinating and defecating |
| Anal retentive | refusing to go when they need to, tend to be orderly |
| Phallic stage | pleasure from the genitals and interest in difference between boys and girls |
| Oedipus complex | boys desire their mother’s affection and so are rivals with their fathers |
| Castration anxiety | boys fear retaliation from their fathers and so identify with their fathers to gain vicarious access to their mothers |
| Penis envy | girls initially also desire the affections of their mothers, but fell jealous because they lack a penis, they blame their mothers; so, they transfer their affections to their fathers |
| Latency stage | period of relative calm, interest in other activities (e.g., school friends, sports, etc.) |
| Genital stage | if the person has successfully navigated the previous stages (no major fixations), the stage is set for mature romantic relationships |
| Anxiety | Reality (real threats), neurotic (fear that id impulses will get out of control), moral (shame or guilt because we have, or think we might violate our principles), the ego deals with anxiety by coping in a rational manner and by using defense mechanisms |
| Defense mechanisms | Repression, denial, reaction formation, rationalization, intellectualization, projection, displacement, sublimation |
| Psychoanalytic techniques | Free association (says whatever comes to mind), parapraxes (mistakes such as slips of the tongue), dream analysis |
| Neo-Freudians | Less emphasis on sex, more emphasis on ego [Ego Psychology], less emphasis on biology and more on social interaction |
| Collective unconscious | unconscious that includes thoughts from other people too |
| Archetypes | symbols that people all over the world are familiar with (hero, mother, child, sage, wise) |
| Introversion/extroversion, thinking/feeling and sensation/intuition | people differ in these |
| Myers Briggs Type Indicator | based on Jung’s ideas but adds judgement/perception |
| Organ inferiority | people have areas of weakness |
| Inferiority complex | feelings of helplessness of incompetence |
| Superiority complex | feelings of self-importance as a reaction to feelings of inferiority |
| Masculine protest | children are small and weak, they desire to become powerful. We try to compensate for our areas of weakness |
| Basic anxiety | fear of being powerless and alone |
| Neurotic needs | helps deal with anxiety (affection, power) |
| Moving toward | please others so one will be cared for |
| Moving away | be self-sufficient so one doesn’t need others |
| Moving against | gain power and respect |
| Penis envy vs. womb envy | disagreed with penis envy; if women felt inferior, this was because men had more opportunities and respect. Men can have womb envy because they cannot have children |
| Behaviorists | “personality” as patterns of behavior due to conditioning |
| Expectancy | behavior depends on how much we believe our performance will matter |
| Reinforcement value | how much we want the reward |
| Locus of control | Internal (having control), external (little control) |
| Internal has benefits | academic achievement, job performance, healthier behavior, emotional well being |
| Self-efficacy | the belief that one can succeed (benefits |
| Observational learning | bobo doll studies |
| Reciprocal determinism | we choose many of our situations, influence our situations, and personality affects behavior apart from the environment |
| Marshmallow studies | gives kid marshmallow and says they can eat it or they can wait and get an extra marshmallow |
| Ability to delay gratification has benefits | academic success and income |
| Attention to the reward hinders the ability to delay | obesity, smoking, and cocaine use |
| Humanistic perspective | Emphasizes humanism, becoming (moving toward realizing one’s potential), existential philosophy (meaning of human existence), and phenomenological view (people have subjective perceptions) |
| Maslow | Academic leader, people have a drive to self-actualize, hierarchy of needs |
| Peak experiences | powerful experiences of wonder, well-being or insight) |
| Rogers | Therapeutic leader, self-actualization (desire to grow), desire for positive regard |
| Client Centered Therapy | emphasizes unconditional positive regard |
| Frankl | Existential theorist (meaning of existence), people can find meaning even in the midst of suffering and grow through struggles, wrote Man’s Search for Meaning |
| Logotherapy | primary motive of humans is to find the meaning of life |
| Kelly | Phenomenological theorist (subjective experiences) |
| Personal constructs | e.g., prof might thing of understanding kid as student while coach thinks of kid as athlete |
| Factor analysis | statistical procedure that can identify groups of traits that hang together (factors) |
| Cattell | used factor analysis to identify 16 factors that provide a summary of personality [16PF (sixteen personality factors questionnaire)] |
| Big Five | Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN) |
| Personality vs. situational influences on behavior | Personality weak predictor of individual behaviors |
| Situationalism | suggests situations rather than traits, predict behavior |
| Interactionism | suggests behavior is a function of personality and situation |
| Important concepts | weak vs. strong situations, situational selection, aggregation |
| Direct effects vs. indirect effects | probably rare vs. biology |
| Eysenck’s Arousal Theory and research | there is an optimal level of arousal, arousal affected by biology, people may seek or avoid things to reach optimal arousal |
| Hemispheric asymmetry and research | left frontal is more active during positive during emotions, right frontal is more active during negative emotions, baseline asymmetry indicates tendency to experience positive or negative emotions |
| Spearman | intelligence is a general ability (g) but performance is a function of g and specific abilities (s) |
| Cattell | fluid intelligence (speed, flexibility) and crystallized intelligence (knowledge) |
| Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory | analytic, creative, practical intelligence |
| Gardner’s Model of Multiple Intelligences | linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal |
| Binet & Simon | intelligence as mental age |
| Ratio IQ | mental age/ chronological age *100 |
| Stanford-Binet | revised test for U.S. |
| WISC and WAIS | Scale for children and scale for adults |
| Deviation IQ | scores based on norms for one’s age group |
| Controversy over racial differences | white americans score higher than black americans |
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