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McCrary Unit 1
Unit 1 of AP Psych, memory, from 18-19 fall class
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| memory | the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information |
| encoding | the processing of information into the memory system, for example, by extracting meaning |
| storage | the process of retaining encoded information over time |
| retrieval | the process of getting information out of memory storage |
| parallel processing | the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously, including vision. Contrasts with the step by step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving |
| sensory memory | the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system |
| short term memory | activated memory that holds few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten |
| long term memory | the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of there memory system, includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
| explicit memory | memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know, and "declare"(declarative memory) |
| effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
| automatic processing | unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning. |
| implicit memory | retention independent of conscious recollection(non declarative memory)(includes procedural memory for automatic skills, classically conditioned associations) |
| iconic memory | a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture - image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
| echoic memory | a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds |
| chunking | organizing information into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically |
| mnemonics | memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| spacing effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice |
| testing effect | enhanced memory after retrieving rather than simply rereading information. also sometimes referred to as retrieval practice or test enhanced learning |
| shallow processing | encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words |
| deep processing | encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the word, tends to yield the best retention |
| *seven dwarves* | Doc, Happy, Grumpy, Sleepy, Dopey, Bashful, Sneezy |
| working memory | a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual -spatial information, and of information retrieved from long term memory.(Alan Baddlely) |
| hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system, helps process explicit memories for storage |
| flashbulb memory | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event(think amygdala) |
| long term potentiation | an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. |
| recall | a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test |
| recognition | a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items learned earlier, as on a multiple choice test |
| relearning | a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again |
| priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response |
| mood-congruent memory | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
| serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first(a primary effect) in a list |
| anterograde amnesia | an inability to form new memories |
| retrograde amnesia | an inability to retrieve information form one's past |
| Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve | a study done by herman ebbinghaus's on retention which portrays on a graph the phrase "the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time |
| proactive interference | the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information |
| retroactive interference | the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of ofd information |
| repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories |
| misinformation effect | incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event(Elizabeth Loftus) |
| source amnesia | attributing to the wrong source a event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (source misattribution). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. |
| déjà vu | that eerie sense that 'I've experienced this before'. Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. |
| cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people |
| prototype | a mental image or best example of a category, matching new items to a prototype provides quick and easy methods for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin) |
| creativity | the ability to produces new and valuable ideas |
| convergent thinking | narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution |
| divergent thinking | expands the number possible problem solutions(creative thinking that diverges in different directions) |
| five components of creativity | expertise(well developed base of knowledge), imaginative thinking skills(ability to see things in novel ways), a venturesome personality(overcomes obstacles, tolerates risk), intrinsic motivation(driven by interest), and a creative environment. |
| algorithm | a methodical. logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier but also more error-prone use of heuristics |
| Heuristic | a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than algorithms |
| insight | a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions |
| confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that supports our preconception and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence |
| mental set | a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often one that has been successful in the past |
| intuition | an effortless, immediate automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning |
| representativeness heuristic | judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information(truck driver poetry lover) |
| availability heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, if instances come readily to mind(perhaps because of vividness), we presume such events are common(gambling advertising) |
| overconfidence | the tendency to be more confident than correct to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements, |
| belief perseverance | clinging to one's original conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| framing | the way an issue was posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements |
| language | our spoken, written or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning |
| phoneme | in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit(the sound 'b') |
| morpheme | in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word of part of a word(prefix)(like the word 'pre' in prefix) |
| grammar | in a language a system of rules that allows us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences |
| babbling stage | beginning at about 4 mo., the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language |
| one-word stage | the stage in speech development from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks in mostly single words |
| two-word stage | beginning at about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks in mostly two-word statements |
| telegraphic speech | early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-"go car"-using mostly nouns and verbs |
| apasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area(impairing speaking) or Wernicke's area(impairing understanding) |
| Broca's area | controls language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually on the left hemisphere, directs the muscle movements involved in speech |
| Wernicke's area | controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression, usually in the left temporal lobe |
| linguistic determinism | Wharf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think |
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