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Intro and cortex
Intro to Neuro and Cerebral Cortex
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the CNS? | Part of nervous system which is inside the bony cavities - brain and spinal cord are in the skull and vertebral column |
| What is the PNS? | Part of nervous system which is outside of bony cavities - spinal and cranial nerves, and plexus, ganglions |
| What does somatic mean? | Innervates skin and skeletal muscles and is mainly involved with receiving and responding to info from the external environment |
| What is visceral? | Innervates organ systems in the body and other visceral elements, such as smooth muscles and glands in peripheral regions of the body - concerned with detecting and responding to info from internal environment |
| What are afferent nerve fibers? | Afferent nerve fibers transmit signal from periphery to the CNS |
| What are efferent nerve fibers? | Efferent nerve fibers transmit messages from the CNS to the periphery |
| Brain can be divided into what? | Cerebrum, brainstem, and cerebellum |
| In embryology, what are the primary brain vesicles? | Prosecephalon, mesencephalon, rhombencephalon |
| In embryology, what are the secondary brain vesicles? | Telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, myelencephalon |
| What secondary brain vesicles are derived from the prosencephalon? | Telencephalon, diencephalon |
| What secondary brain vesicles are derived from the mesencephalon? | Mesencephalon |
| What secondary brain vesicles are derived from the rhombencephalon? | Metencephalon, myelencephalon |
| What are the adult structure walls? | Cerebral hemispheres; thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus; midbrain; pons; cerebellum; medulla |
| What primary and secondary vesicles are the cerebral hemispheres derived from? | Prosencephalon, telencephalon |
| What primary and secondary vesicles are the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus derived from? | Prosencephalon, diencephalon |
| What primary and secondary vesicles is the midbrain derived from? | Mesencephalon, mesencephalon |
| What primary and secondary vesicles is the pons derived from? | Rhombencephalon, metencephalon |
| What primary and secondary vesicles is the cerebellum derived from? | Rhombencephalon, metencephalon |
| What primary and secondary vesicles is the medulla derived from? | Rhombencephalon, myelencephalon |
| What structures are derived from the same primary and secondary vesicles? | Pons, cerebellum |
| What primary vesicle is the brainstem derived from? | Mesencephalon, rhombencephalon |
| What embryonic structure is the brain formed from? | Neural tube and cavities inside form brain ventricles |
| What is fasciculus? | Bundle of nerve fibers within CNS |
| What are fascicles? | Bundle of nerve fibers within PNS |
| What is a tract? | Bundle of nerve fibers within CNS that are usually doing the same function |
| What is white matter? | Myelinated nerve fibers |
| What is grey matter? | NErve cell bodies, bundles of unmyelinated axons and dendrites, and neuroglia |
| What is a nucleus? | Mass of nerve cell bodies inside the CNS |
| What is a ganglion? | Mass of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS |
| What is the cerebral cortex? | Highly convoluted structure consisting of right and left hemispheres made up of grey matter |
| What are the four external lobes of each hemisphere and their primary function? | o Frontal – motor o Parietal – sensory o Occipital - vision o Temporal – sound |
| What is a gyrus? | Each convolution on each lobe is called a gyrus |
| What are the three prominent sulci? | Central sulcus (fissure of Rolando), lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure), Parieto-occipital sulcus |
| What does the central sulcus separate? | • Separates frontal and parietal lobes • Behind central sulcus – post-central gyrus – primary sensory area • Anterior to central sulcus – precentral gyrus – primary motor area |
| What does the lateral sulcus separate? | • Superior boundary of temporal lobe • Seaparates frontal and a part of the parietal lobe from temporal lobe |
| What does the parieto-occipital lobe separate? | Separates parietal and occipital |
| What are the two lobes that aren't visible externally? | Insula and limbic |
| Where is the Insula and its primary function? | • Deep to lateral fissure • Primary gustatory cortex • Seen if temporal separated from parietal lobe |
| Where is the limbic and its primary function? | • Inferior medial surfaces of frontal, parietal, and temporal lobe • Memory and emotional expression |
| What is the function Broca's area and where is it located? | • Initiation and execution of speech • Frontal lobe – mainly left hemisphere |
| What does damage to Broca's area indicate? | Damage to this area means patient can understand language but can’t speak - Expressive/motor/Broca's aphasia. Patient will often get frustrated because can't express words |
| What is the function Wernicke's area and where is it located? | • Parietal lobe – mainly left hemisphere • Running around lateral sulcus – superior posterior end • Language comprehension (written and spoken) |
| What would damage to Wernicke's area indicate? | Patient can speak but can’t actually comprehend language →person speaks jumbled, meaningless words - Receptive/sensory/Wernicke's aphasia |
| What is the function Somatosensory area and where is it located? | • Receives general sensory input • Parietal lobe – postcentral gyrus |
| What would damage to the somatosensory area mean? | Patient can't feel if something general senses - pain, temperature, pressure, touch, vibration, itch, tickle |
| What is the function Somatosensory association area and where is it located? | • Posterior to somatosensory area • Elaborates on sensory signals • Determines exact shape, texture of an object without looking at it • Storage of memories of past sensory experiences • Gives more meaning to sense in the somatosensory area |
| What would damage to the somatosensory association area mean? | Asterognosia - unable to recognize object by touch. Amorphosynthesis - oblivious to opposite side of body and to opposite side of objects - visual cortex is fine, just associated with general sense |
| What connects Broca's and Wernicke's area? | Arcuate fasciculus |
| What would happen if there was a lesion on the tract? | Conduction aphasia- can comprehend and articulate but difficulty repeating heard speech |
| Where is the primary visual cortex? | Occipital |
| Where is the primary auditory cortex? | Temporal |
| Where is the primary gustatory cortex? | Insula |
| Where is the primary olfactory cortex? | Medial temporal lobe |
| What is the significance of the primary olfactory's location? | Closely related to behavior because of where it is located |
| Describe the relationship between the primary areas and the association areas | Primary receives initial sensory, input but does not interpret. Association interprets sensory info. |
| Which area of the body has the largest area outlined in the sensory homunculus? | Lips and hands |
| What does the size on the sensory homunculus tell us? | The bigger the size, the more dense the sensory receptors in the body → more receptors in that area |
| If the primary sensory area can determine topographical location, why can excision of the area still have some localization? | Because crude localization still happens due to thalamus |
| What does it mean for an area to be unimodal? | Area integrates information from one area of the brain →Primary somatosensory sends info to somatosensory association area - elaborates on primary stimulus |
| What is the implication of areas being unimodular? | For each primary sense, close by or next to primary sensory area |
| What does it mean for an area to be multimodular? | Integrates information from different sensory areas |
| What areas are multimodular? | Only one → parieto-occipito-temporal association area |
| What is the function of the parieto-occipito-temporal association area? | Combining hearing, vision, and other senses like seeing that your finger is hot because it is touching the stove, used stimuli integrated with pain information |
| How does information for senses from in the brain? | From primary to association |
| What is the implication of sensory info flowing from primary area to association? | If damage on primary area, then will lose that primary sense. If damage on association area then will lose "meaning" to that sense. |
| What is the prefrontal association area? | Area involved in memory of sequences of events and in short-term/working memory - can store info as a guide for future movement. It is concerned with personality - involved with judgment and weighing consequences |
| What would damage to the prefrontal association area mean? | Change in personality, inability to create and stick to future plans, inability to differentiate between intellectual faculty and animal propensity |
| What is the primary motor area? | • Precentral gyrus - frontal lobe • Involved in conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements |
| Where does the primary motor area receive input from? | Premotor area and supplementary motor areas, sensory cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum |
| What is the relationship between the size of the areas outlined by the motor homunculus to the body? | Size of homunculus is proportional to the degree of fine motor control → hand is big because need more fine motor control |
| From right to left, how are the body parts arranged in the motor homunculus? | Jaw, tongue, swallowing → lips → face→ fingers→ hands→ forearm→ arm→ hips→ knees→ feet |
| What is the implication for how the body parts are arranged in the motor hounculus? | Blood supply: MCA supplies to lateral side - areas association with face. ACA supplies to medial side - areas association to leg |
| What is the premotor area? | • Frontal lobe - anterior to primary motor area • Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills • Stores learned motor responses that can be used to program activity of primary motor area |
| Where does the premotor area receive input from? | Sensory cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia |
| What does the premotor area allow us to do if it controls learned, repetitious motor skills? | Prepares muscles for exact movements that it will make - allows us to make choices about these movements using information by senses |
| What is an example of an action using the premotor area? | Squeeze toothpaste onto toothbrush and not lotion |
| What is the supplementary motor area? | Similar to premotor area - helps plan and coordinate the movements executed by primary motor area - also active durning mental rehearsal |
| What is the left hemisphere usually most active in? | Speech, analytical processing, mathematics |
| What is the right hemisphere usually most active in? | Spatial concepts, creativity |
| What are association fibers? | Join different area of same hemisphere to each other |
| What are commissural fibers? | Reciprocally connect areas of cortex in one hemisphere with corresponding areas of the opposite hemisphere → "interneurons" |
| What is an example of commissural fibers? | corpus callosum, anterior and posterior commissures |
| What are projectional fibers? | Projecting to and from cortex |
| What is an example of a projectional fiber? | Internal capsule |
| Where is the internal capsule located? | Between caudate nucleus and putamens anteriorly, thalamus and globus pallidus inferiorly |
| What is the basal ganglia? | Large nuclei primarily involved in regulation of motor control |
| What are the main components of the basal ganglia? | Caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, putaments. Substantia nigra and subthalamus nucleus work with basal ganglia |
| What makes up the diencephalon? | Thalamic structures - thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus, pituitary gland |
| Where is the pituitary gland? | Hanging from hypothalamus |
| What is the function of the thalamus? | relay center for sensory information (except smell) o All other senses have to pass through thalamus o Involved in movement planning and control |
| Where is the hypothalamus located? | Caudal and medial to thalamus |
| What is the function of the hypothalamus? | o Center of autonomic nervous system – regulates many body function • E.g. core temperature, endocrine function, regulates eating/drinking behavior • Maintains waking state • Establishes pattern of sleep • Produces hormones oxytocin and ADH |
| What is the function of the epithalamus? | Regulates circadian rhythm, distribution of pigment melanin in skin |
| Where is the pineal gland? | With the epithalamus |
| Where is the substhalamus? | caudal and lateral to thalamus |
| What is the function of the subthalamus? | o Works with basal ganglia in motor function o Also in contact with cerebellum |
| Where is the cerebellum? | Posterior to brainstem |
| What is the function of the cerebellum? | • Coordination of unconscious movement • Balance and equilibrium and posture • Compares intended movement with what is actually happening to smooth muscle • Coordinates complex, skilled movements |
| What is the cerebellum to the brainstem connected by? | o Superior peduncles – midbrain o Middle peduncle – pons o Inferior peduncles – medulla |
| What makes up the brainstem? | Midbrain, pons, medulla |
| What are important structures in the brainstem? | Substantia nigra, red nucleus, medial/spinal lemniscus, and corticospinal tract |
| What does the substantia nigra do? | Works with basal ganglia in motor function |
| What does the red nucleus do? | Concerned with motor function |
| What is the function of the medial lemniscus? | Sends sensory info to cortex - proprioception, discriminative touch |
| What is the function of the spinal lemniscus? | Sends sensory info to cortex - pain, temperature, crude touch |
| What is the function of the corticospinal tract? | Motor info from brain to spinal cord |
| What is the crus cerebri? | Corticospinal tract and corticobilbar tract - both descending tracts (motor) |
| Where is the midbrain? | Between diencephalon and pons |
| What cavity is in the midbrain? | Aqueduct that connects 3rd ventricle to 4th ventricle |
| What is the tectum on the midbrain? | Region posterior to aqueduct → roof of midbrain |
| What is seen on the tectum? | Has bumps known as colliculi → collectively known as corpora quadrigemina of tectum →Superior and inferior colliculi |
| What is the function of the superior colliculi? | VIsual reflex |
| What is the function of the inferior colliculi? | Auditory reflex |
| What CN are carried on the midbrain? | CN III and IV |
| Where is the pons? | Between midbrain and medulla |
| What is the function of pons? | Relay center for motor pathway, respiration, generation of REM sleep |
| What is the implication of being a relay center for motor pathway? | Located between cerebellum and cerebrum for voluntary movement |
| What CN are carried on the pons? | CN V, VI, VII, VIII |
| Where is CN V located on the pons? | Anterolateral surface? |
| Where are CN VI, VII, VIII located on the pons? | Ponto-medullary sulcus |
| Where is the medulla? | Where connects brainstem to spinal cord - separated by pons by ponto-medullar sulcus |
| What is located on the anterior view of the medulla? | Two bulges on its ventral surface → pyramids; two other bulges next to pyramids → olives |
| What is the significance of the pyramids? | Carries corticospinal fibers |
| What is the significance of the olives? | Inferior olivary nuclei – relay center for proprioceptive info to cerebellum |
| What CN are on the medulla? | Anterolateral surface carries CN IX, X, XI, XII |
| What is the function of the medulla? | Many reflexes: respiratory, heart rate, cough, swallowing |
| What is the reticular formation? | Complex network of nuclei and nerve fibers that runs through parts of the brain, brainstem, and spinal cord |
| What is the function of the reticular formation? | o Consciousness o Selective monitoring of sensory info o Control of skeletal muscle and endocrine systems |
| What can a stroke in the reticular formation cause? | Coma |
| What does the white matter in the spinal cord consist of? | Tracts of fibers - ventral, lateral, and dorsal fasciuli |
| What does the grey matter in the spinal cord consist of? | Nerve cell bodies and synapses: 2 ventral hornes (motor), 2 dorsal horns (sensory), and lateral horns |
| Are lateral horns seen all along the spinal cord? | No, T1-L2, S2/3/4 |
| What is the implication of the lateral horns location? | Part of ANS - sympathetic (T1-L2) and parasympathetic (S2/3/4) |
| What connects the right and left halves of the spinal cord? | Grey commissure which contains central canal |
| Where is the spinal cord derived from? | Caudal part of neural tube |
| Where is the spinal cord located? | Sitting in vertebral canal and ends in L1/L2 in adults, L3 in children |
| What is the cornus medullaris? | Tapered part of spinal cord – terminal end of spinal cord |
| Because it is the terminal end of the spinal cord, where in the vertebral canal is the cornus medullaris? | At level of L1/L2 |
| What would happen if L1/L2 was fractured? | A lot of nerves would be compromised |
| If the spinal cord ends at L1/L2, what does the rest of the vertebral column have? | Contains spinal roots which hang down like a ponytail |
| What are the spinal roots hanging from L1/L2 called? | Cauda equina |
| What is a spinal segment? | Area of the spinal cord that gives rise to a single pair of spinal nerves |
| How many spinal segments are there? | 31 for 31 spinal nerves |
| How are nerves attached to spinal cord? | Made by two roots |
| Describe how the dorsal root is attached to the spinal cord | Emerge from dorsal median sulcus as rootlets then merge to form roots which attach to dorsal horn |
| Describe how the dorsal root is attached to the spinal cord | Emerge from ventral median fissure as rootlets then merge to form roots which attach to ventral horn horn |
| What is the implication of dorsal and ventral roots? | Spinal nerve is mixed - made up of both sensory and motor |
| How do the spinal nerves leave the vertebral canal? | Through intervertebral foramina and divide into anterior and posterior |
| Describe the anterior branch of the spinal nerves | Ventral ramus which contains mix of sensory and motor. Innervates everything dorsal does. Doesn't innervate certain regions of the head |
| Describe the posterior branch of spinal nerves | Dorsal ramus which moves posteriorly and innervates deep back muscles and skin on back (one inch away from midline) |
| What are plexus? | Network of fibers |
| What makes up the cervical plexus | C1-C4 |
| What makes up the brachial plexus? | C5-T1 |
| What makes up the lumbar plexus? | L1-L4 |
| What makes up the sacral plexus? | L4-S4 |
| What makes up the sacro-coccygeal plexus? | S5-Co |
| Why don't the nerves at T1-T12 have a plexus? | Because of ribs |
| What are intercostal nerves? | T1-T11 |
| What is the subcostal nerve? | T12 |
| What are the meninges? | Membranous structure that surrounds the brain and spinal cord |
| What layers make up the meninges? | Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater |
| What is the dura mater? | Dense CT attached to inner surface of neurocranium separate from walls of vertebral canal by epidural space |
| What is the function of dura mater? | Protect CNS |
| What is epidural space? | Above dura mater. In neurocranium, not real but potential space. In vertebrae, in the walls of vertebral canal - highly vascularized CT that forms protective layer around spinal cord. |
| What would cause an epidural space to occur in the neurocranium? | Blood vessel ruptures and a hematoma forms |
| How far does the dura mater go? | Ends at S2 |
| What layers make up the dura mater? | Periosteal layer, meningeal layer |
| What is the periosteal layer? | • Outermost layer that adheres to cranial bones • Does not extend into spinal cord |
| What is the meningeal layer? | Inner layer with two distinct structures: dural reflections and dural sinuses |
| What are dural reflections? | Certain places forms a septum that partitions parts of the brain |
| What are examples of dural reflections? | Falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, tentorium cerebelli |
| What is falx cerebri? | Partition within longitudinal fissure of cerebrum which separates cerebral hemispheres |
| What is falx cerebelli? | Partition which separates cerebellar hemispheres |
| What is tentorium cerebelli? | Partition between cerebellum and occipital lobe |
| What is the significance of the tenotrium cerebelli? | Passage for midbrain and separates cerebrum and cerebellum |
| What are dural sinuses? | Venous channels where periosteal layer and meningeal layer separated - drains venous blood into circulatory system |
| What are veins that drain the brain area into the dural sinuses? | Diploic (drains skull bones), meningeal, cerebellar, cerebral, and brainstem veins |
| What vein is on top of the falx cerebri? | Superior sagittal sinus |
| What is the arachnoid mater? | Middle layer of meninges |
| What is the subarachnoid space? | Space between arachnoid membrane and pia mater - attached to pia by weblike arachnoid trabeculae |
| What does the subarachnoid contain? | Arteries, veins, and roots of cranial nerves; CSF and blood vessels that can be reabsorbed into venous sinus |
| What structure is responsible for reabsorbing CSF and blood into venous sinus? | Arachnoid villi (granulation) |
| What is pia mater? | Innermost layer of meninges - attaches surface to spinal cord, closely following contour of brain and spinal cord |
| What is the function of pia mater? | Lines blood vessels that supply brain and spinal cord →takes blood vessels into CNS |
| How far does pia mater go? | Ends at S2 |
| What is the caudal equina? | Dural sac that closes off at S2 - pia mater |
| How does the pia and dura mater extend to coccyx? | Filum terminal - extension of the two |
| What is denticulate ligament? | Extension of pia mater on both sides of the spinal cord |
| What is the function of denticulate ligament? | Spinal cord not freely hanging - has pia mater on sides and downward to anchor it |
| What surrounds the spinal nerves in the sacrum? | Extension of dura |
| What is epidural anesthesia? | Can insert anesthesia through epidural space and through diffusion, pass through dura and can block off spinal roots |
| What is the ventricular system? | System that circulates CSF and helps buoy the brain and cushion |
| What is the importance of the ventricular system? | Helps to protect and nourish the CNS |
| What is the flow of CSF? | From ventricles into central canal of spinal cord and the subarachnoid space |
| What makes up the ventricular system? | Lateral ventricles with anterior, posterior, and inferior horns; third ventricle; fourth ventricle |
| What secretes CSF? | Choroid plexus - found in all ventricles - made by capillaries and ependymal cells that line cavities from inside |
| How does the lateral ventricles connect to the third ventricles? | Interventricular foramen |
| What connects the third ventricle to the fourth? | Cerebral aqueduct |
| What connects the fourth ventricle to the ventral canal? | Already connected - closed system |
| How does CSF get out of the 4th ventricle? | Through openings on root of 4th ventricle - medial aperture (foramen of Magendie) and 2 lateral apertures (foramen of Luschka) |
| Where does CSF from the 4th ventricle travel to? | Subarachnoid space which will drain out of arachnoid villa into venous blood to begin circulation again |
| What would happen if a ventricle was blocked? | Hydrocephalus |
| How can a blocked ventricle be circumvented? | Open a shunt and put it in the dural sinus and pass into skin and goes into abdomen to be absorbed into venous system |
| What are the two systems that supply blood to the brain? | Vertebro-basilar system and carotid system |
| What arteries make up the carotid system? | Mddle cerebral, anterior cerebral, and anterior communicating |
| What arteries make up the vertebral-basilar system? | Vertebral arteries, basilar, posterior cerebral, posterior communicating, posterior anterior inferior cerebellar artery, superior cerebellar |
| What arteries cover the brainstem? | Posterior anterior inferior cerebellar, superior cerebellar |
| What arteries turns into vertebral artery? | Branches of subclavian artery (in root of neck)→come to skull by transverse foramina of cervical vertebrae |
| What does the vertebral vein turn into? | Basilar - anterior to pons and supplies pons |
| What does the basilar artery turn into? | Posterior cerebral artery (PCA) |
| What is the significance of PCA? | In medial occipital lobe so cortical blindness if compromised |
| What artery branches from PCA? | Superior cerebellar artery |
| How does the vertebro-basilar system connect with the carotid system? | PCA connects to carotid system through posterior communicating arteries to middle cerebral |
| What is the internal artery? | Branch of common carotid which gives out middle cerebral artery and anterior cerebral artery |
| What happens if there is a blockage on one side of circle of willis? | Other side compensates |
| What happens if MCA is compromised? | Being on lateral side which supplies the tongue, mouth, face - can't talk |
| What happens if the ACA is compromised? | Located on medial surface so for leg, foot and hips - those areas might be compromised |
| What happens if PCA is compromised | Being on medial surface of occipital lobe - eyesight will be compromised |
| What are the layers of the cerebral cortex from surface to deep? | Layer 1 (molecular) → Layer 2 (external granular layer) → Layer 3 (external pyramidal layer) → Layer 4 (Internal granular layer) → Layer 5 (itnternal pyramidal layer) → Layer 6 (multiform layer) |
| What are the intra-cortical connections? | Layers 1-3 |
| What is the function of layers 1-3? | Route info around cortical layers → intra-cortical connections |
| What is the function of layer 4? | Major thalamic termination center for sensory impulses - accepts sensory info from thalamus and sends to layer 1-3 |
| What areas in the cortex is layer 4 most developed and least? | Well developed in sensory cortex, small in motor |
| What is the function of layers 5-6? | Subcortical outputs → sends outputs to other areas of the brain |
| Which subcortical output layer travels longer distances? | Layer 5 can go longer distances, layer 6 only goes to thalamic regions |
| What is the relationship between size and function? | They vary depending on function → Layers 5-6 are bigger because they're motor |
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nnguyen44
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