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SCI 221

A & P

Question	Answer
Homeostasis	the relatively constant states maintained by the body
Integumentary	separates internal environment from external environment, providing stability of internal fluid volume
Skeletal	supports and protects internal environment, allowing movement; stores minerals that can be moved into and out of internal fluid
Muscular	powers and directs movements; provides heat
Nervous	regulates homeostatic mechanisms, sensing changes, integrating information, sending signals to effectors
Endocrine	regulates homeostasis by secreting signaling hormones that travel through internal environment to effector cells
Cardiovascular	maintains internal constancy by transporting nutrients, water, oxygen, hormones, wastes, and other materials and heat within the internal environment
Lymphatic	maintains constant fluid pressure by draining excess fluid from tissues, cleaning it, and recycling it to bloodstream
Immune	defends internal environment against harmful agents
Respiratory	maintains stable O2 and CO2 levels in body by exchanging these gases between external and internal environments; provides vocal communication with others for protection, hunting, etc.
Digestive	maintains relatively constant nutrient level in body by digesting food and absorbing nutrients into internal environment
Urinary	maintains constantly low level of waste and regulates pH of internal environment; helps maintain constancy of internal water volume and balance of ions and other substances
Reproductive	passes genetic code containing information for forming a body and maintaining homeostasis to offspring
There is a minimum of four basic components in every feedback control loop	1. Sensor mechanism 2. Integrator or control center 3. Effector mechanism 4. Feedback
Sensor	any agent or mechanism that detects a change in conditions (or stimulus) inside or outside the body, such as a sensory receptor
Integrator	an integration center or control center that receives sensed information and compares that to stored or setpoint information, possibly sending a response to an effector that will act to change the value of the sensed information
Effectors	organ, gland, or muscle that responds to a regulatory control signal, such as a nerve stimulus or hormone
Negative feedback	feedback control system in which the level of a variable is changed in the direction opposite to that of the initial stimulus
Positive feedback	feedback control system that is stimulatory; tends to amplify or reinforce a change in the internal environment
Feed-forward	concept that information may flow ahead to another process to trigger a change in anticipation of an event that will follow
Intracellular control	level of homeostatic control of body processes that occurs within cells, as in genetic regulation or enzymatic regulation of the cell
Intrinsic control	level of homeostatic control of body processes that occurs within a particular tissue or organ, as when local regulators such as prostaglandins regulate local physiology
Extrinsic control	style of physiological regulation in which the control center (regulatory center) is outside, or extrinsic to, the tissue being regulated; for example, the brain’s control of a leg muscle or the pituitary gland’s regulation of the thyroid gland
Epidemiology	study of the occurrence, distribution, and transmission of diseases in human populations
Idiopathic	refers to a disease of undetermined cause
Prions	short for “proteinaceous infectious particles,” which are proteins that convert proteins of the cell into different proteins and the altered form of the protein may then be inherited; may act as a pathogen, forming abnormal protein tangles in brain cells
Ions	ions can be positively or negaitively charged and that ions with opposite charges are attracted to each other
Signal transduction	process of changing a signal such as a hormone or neurotransmitter into another form such as enzymatic reaction within the cell receiving the signal
Hydrogen bonds	hydrogen bonds are much weaker forces than ionic or covalent bonds they require less energy to break. hydrogen bonds result from unequal charge distribution on a molecule
Chromatin	threadlike form of DNA, making up the genetic material in the nucleus
Microfilaments	smallest cell fibers
Three basic types of chemical reactions	1. Synthesis reactions 2. Decomposition reactions 3. Exchange reaction
Synthesis reactions	chemical reaction that combines two or more reactants to form a more complex structure
Exchange reactions	chemical reaction that breaks down a compound and then synthesizes a new compound by switching portions of the molecules
Intermediate filaments	twisted strands of protein, slightly larger than microfilaments that make up part of the cell’s internal skeleton
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)	is made up of broad, flattened sacs that extend outward from the boundary of the nucleus
Dehydration synthesis	anabolic process by which molecules are joined to form larger molecules; often called condensation reaction because it joins molecules together into a denser mass
Buffers	compound that combines with an acid or with a base to form a weaker acid or base, thereby lessening the change in hydrogen ion concentration that would occur without the buffer; often operates as buffer pairs
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)	No ribosomes border the membranous wall; part of the network is usually more tubular in structure than the flattened sacs of the RER
Endoderm	innermost layer of the primary germ layers that develops early in the first trimester of pregnancy; gives rise to digestive and urinary structures, as well as many other glands and organ parts
Mesoderm	middle layer of the primary germ layers; gives rise to such structures as muscle, bones, and blood vessels
Ectoderm	outermost of the primary germ layers that develops early in the first trimester of pregnancy; gives rise to the skin and the nervous system
Proteins	large molecules formed by linkage of amino acids by peptide bonds; one of the basic building blocks of the body
Glycoproteins	substance made of molecules that are a combined form of carbohydrate and protein
Proteoglycans	large molecule made up of a protein strand that forms a backbone to which are attached many carbohydrate molecules
Polysaccharides	complex sugar or starch, such as glycogen and plant starches; made up of many monosaccharides
Three types of exocrine glands may be identified	1. Apocrine 2. Holocrine 3. Merocrine
Stratum basal	“base layer”; deepest layer of the epidermis; cells in this layer are able to reproduce themselves
Friction ridges	raised underlying dermal papillae; form fingerprints
Stratum spinosum	“spiny layer”; layer of epidermis that is rich in RNA to aid in protein synthesis required for keratin production
Stratum granulosum	“granular layer”; layer in which the process of keratinization begins
Stratum lucidum	“clear” layer of the epidermis, in thick skin between the stratum granulosum and the stratum corneum
Stratum corneum	tough outer layer of the epidermis; cells are filled with keratin
Eumelanin	type of melanin pigment that is dark brown in color
Pheomelanin	type of melanin pigment that is reddish in color
Diaphysis	shaft of a long bone
Epiphyses	end of a long bone; also, the pineal body of the brain
Articular cartilage	either of a pair of cartilages found in the supporting framework of the larynx
Periosteum	tough, connective tissue covering the bone
Medullary cavity	hollow area inside the diaphysis of the bone that contains yellow marrow
Interstitial growth	cartilage growth following mitosis and secre-tion of matrix by chondrocytes; interstitial growth of epiphyseal plate results in growth in length of long bones
Appositional growth	process by which a flat bone or cartilage grows in size by addition of bony cartilage at its surface
Endochondral ossification	process by which bones are formed by replacement of cartilage models
Intramembranous ossification	process by which most flat bones are formed within connective tissue membranes
Ossification centers	bone formation centers
Primary ossification center	where a blood vessel enters the cartilage of a developing bone at the midpoint of the diaphysis to initiate bone formation
Secondary ossification centers	growth center located in the epiphyses of long bones
Metaphysis	hollow area inside the diaphysis of the bone that contains yellow marrow
Synarthroses	joint in which fibrous connective tissue joins bones and holds them together tightly; commonly called sutures
Amphiarthroses	slightly movable joint such as the one that connects the two pubic bones
Diarthroses	freely movable joint
Gomphoses	fibrous joint where a process is inserted into a socket; for example, the joint between the tooth and mandible
Syndesmoses	fibrous joint
Synchondroses	joint characterized by the presence of hyaline cartilage between articulating bones
Biaxial joints	skeletal articulation that has two axes of movement
Multiaxial joints	joint that permits movement around three or more axes and in three or more planes
Radioulnar joints	articulation of the head of the radius and the radial notch of the ulna
Radiocarpal joints	the point of articulation where the radius distally articulates directly with the carpal bones
Intercarpal joints	articulation between the eight carpal bones
Carpometacarpal joints	skeletal articulation between a wrist (carpal) bone and hand (metacarpal) bone
Interphalangeal joints	articulation that exists between the heads of the phalanges and the bases of the more distal phalanges
Prepatellar bursitis	inflammation of the prepatellar bursa; also called “housemaid’s knee”
Satellite cells	a type of Schwann cell (neuroglial cell) that sur-rounds the cell bodies of neurons of the peripheral nervous system
Isotonic contraction	type of muscle contraction in which the muscle sustains the same tension or pressure and a change in the distance between two bones occurs
Isometric contraction	level of homeostatic control of body processes that occurs within cells, as in genetic regulation or enzymatic regulation of the cell

Created by: JoyceH

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