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Psy 101 Midterm 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| memory | the capacity to store and retrieve information in order to facilitate learning |
| encoding | the process of taking information from the world, including our internal thoughts and feelings, and converting it to memories |
| storage | the maintenance of information in the brain for later access |
| Retrieval | the process of bringing to mind previously encoded and stored information |
| misinformation effect | the decreased accuracy of episodic memories because of information provided after the event |
| levels of processing | the multiple levels at which encoding can occur, ranging from shallow to deep |
| shallow encoding | encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds |
| semantic encoding | operates on the meaning of events and yields better memory than merely processing what something looks or sounds like |
| self-referential encoding | encoding based on an event's relation to our self-concept, which leads to enhanced memory for the event |
| Multistore Model of Memory | a model proposing that information flows from our senses through three storage levels in memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term |
| sensory memory | characterized by substantial storage capacity but also extreme fragility and very limited duration |
| short term memory | information from all senses can be held from seconds to less than a minute before being either stored permanently or forgotten |
| long term memory | information can be held for hours to many years and potentially a lifetime |
| iconic memory | a rapidly decaying store of sensory information |
| echoic memory | a rapidly decaying store of auditory information |
| chunking | process of grouping separate stimuli into meaningful wholes or categories |
| rehearsal | process of actively maintaining information in working memory |
| working memory | active maintenance of information in short-term storage |
| amnesia | loss of memory due to brain damage or trauma |
| anterograde amnesia | incapacity to form new long term memories |
| retrograde amnesia | impairs access to memories prior to date of brain damage but still permits the individual to place new experiences into long term memory |
| consolidation | process where memory storage is stabilized and strengthened |
| long term potentiation (LTP) | a mechanism that creates enduring synaptic connections, which results in increased transmission between neurons reconsolidating reactivation of consolidation by retrieving a memory making the memory susceptible to change |
| explicit memory | involves intentional and conscious remembering |
| implicit memory | occurs without intentional recollection or awareness and is measured indirectly through the influence of prior learning on behavior |
| procedural memory | type of implicit memory related to the acquisition of skills |
| priming | increased ability to process a stimulus because of previous exposure |
| affective conditioning | a form of conditioning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires positive or negative value |
| episodic memory | explicit recollection of personal experiences that requires piecing together the elements of the specific time and place |
| semantic memory | explicit memory supporting knowledge about the world, including concepts and facts |
| retrospective memory | remembering things we have done in the past |
| prospective memory | remembering things we need to do in the future |
| flashbulb memories | extremely vivid memories for emotionally significant events |
| free recall | information accessed without any cues to aid retrieval |
| retrieval cues | information related the stored memories that help bring those memories back to mind |
| cued recall | memory is accompanied by retrieval cues or hints |
| recognition | relies on identifying previously seen or experienced information |
| encoding specificity principle | the idea that retrieval is at its best when the present context recreates the context when the information was initially encoded |
| state dependent retrieval | increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mental state during both encoding and retrieval |
| mood dependent retrieval | increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mood during both encoding and retrieval |
| spacing effect | the enhanced ability to remember information when encoding is distributed over time |
| forgetting curve | the retention of information over various delay times |
| trace decay theory | if a person does not access and use a memory the memory trace will weaken or decay over time |
| retroactive interference | disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information |
| proactive interference | disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information |
| tip of the tongue phenomenon | failure to retrieve information though confident it is stored in memory |
| motivated forgetting | occurs when individuals intentionally try to forget information so that they are less likely to retrieve it later |
| encoding failure | information never makes it into long term memory |
| infantile amnesia | inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from the first few years of life |
| reminiscence bump | a time of prominent memory making between adolescence and early adulthood |
| learning | process that allows for enduring changes in both the brain and behavior as a result of prior experience |
| non-associative learning | involves an increased or decreased response to a repeated stimulus |
| associative learning | involves making connections between stimuli and the behavioral responses to them |
| habituation | a form of non-associative learning by which an organism becomes less responsive to a repeated stimulus |
| sensitization | a form of non-associative learning by which an organism becomes more responsive to a repeated stimulus |
| Dishabituation | Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred, typically as a result of the presentation of a new stimulus |
| operant conditioning | active form of associative learning that is related to changes in voluntary behaviors |
| classical conditioning | passive form of associative learning where an involuntary response to a stimulus /reflex becomes associated with a new stimulus |
| unconditioned stimulus (US) | a stimulus that produces a reflexive response without prior learning |
| unconditioned response (UR) | a response that is automatically generated by the unconditioned stimulus |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus |
| conditioned response (CR) | a response that occurs in the presence of a conditioned stimulus after an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus is learned |
| acquisition | initial learning of the US-CS link in classical conditioning |
| generalization | tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the CS, so that learning is not tied to narrowly to specific stimuli |
| discrimination | occurs when we learn to respond to a particular stimulus but not to similar stimuli, preventing over-generalizations |
| extinction | active learning process whereby the CR is weakened in response to the CS in the absence of the US, because the CS is no longer associated with the US |
| spontaneous recovery | when an extinct behavior reappears after a delay |
| blocking | classical conditioning phenomenon where a prior association with a conditioned stimulus prevents learning of an association with another stimulus because the second one adds no further predictive value |
| preparedness | species-specific biological predisposition to learn some associations more quickly than other associations |
| conditioned taste aversion | a classically conditioned response where individuals are more likely to associate nausea with food than with other environmental stimuli |
| ABC of operant conditioning | Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence |
| law of effect | behavior is a function of its consequences, actions that are followed by good outcomes are strengthened, and behaviors that are followed by bad outcomes are weakened |
| Reinforcement | A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior |
| punishment | a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur |
| primary reinforcers | a consequence that is innately pleasurable and/or satisfies some biological need |
| secondary reinforcers | a learned pleasure that acquires value through experience because of its association with primary reinforcers |
| positive reinforcement | frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a reinforcing stimulus |
| negative reinforcement | increases the probability of a behavior by avoiding or removing an outcome |
| positive punishment | occurs when a stimulus is presented to decrease the likelihood of a behavior |
| negative punishment | decreases a behavior by removing a stimulus |
| Premack Principle | activities someone frequently engages in can be harnesses and used to reinforce activities that the person is less inclined to do |
| shaping | gradually changes random behaviors into a desired target behavior |
| instinctive drift | an animal's reversion to evolutionarily derived instinctive behaviors instead of demonstrating newly learned responses |
| continuous reinforcement schedule | a reinforcement schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed |
| partial reinforcement schedule | behavior is reinforced only some of the time, |
| more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement | |
| fixed-ratio schedule | requires a specific number of behaviors before a reward is given |
| variable ratio schedule | reinforces an average number of behaviors, is less predictable than the fixed version |
| fixed interval schedule | reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time |
| variable-interval schedule | response is reinforced based on an average amount of time elapsed |
| superstitious conditioning | a form of non-contingent reinforcement, in which individuals learn a behavior that has no actual relationship with reinforcement |
| latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
| insight learning | The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known |
| observational learning | learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates a behavior from a model |
| imitation | purposeful copying of a behavior |
| mirror neurons | neurons that are active both when performing an action and when the same action is observed |
| social learning theory | learning is a cognitive process derived from social observation, rather than direct reinforcement of motor actions |
| cultural transmission | the transfer of information from one generation to another that is maintained not by genetics but by teaching and learning |
| vertical transmission | occurs when skills are transferred from parent to offspring |
| horizontal transmission | social learning between peers |
| diffusion chain | individuals learn a behavior by observing a model and then serve as models from which other individuals can learn |
| sensation | occurs when our sensory organs receive stimulus energies from the environment and convert them into the electrical energy of the nervous system |
| transduction | the transformation of sensory stimulus energy from the environment into neural impulses |
| perception | neural processing of electrical signals to form an internal mental representation inside your brain of what is on the outside |
| psychophysics | focuses on the relationship between the physical characteristics of environmental stimuli and our mental experience of them |
| absolute threshold | the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus half of the time |
| signal detection theory | an approach to measuring thresholds that takes into account both the intensity of the stimulus and the psychological biases |
| difference threshold (just noticeable difference) | the minimum change in a stimulus for an observer to detect a difference half of the time |
| Weber's Law | the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity |
| adaptation | when an individual stops noticing a stimulus that remains constant over time |
| Wavelength | Horizontal distance between the crests or between the troughs of two adjacent waves which corresponds to what we experience as color |
| Frequency | the number of cycles per second of a wave (related to wavelength) |
| amplitude | maximum height of a light wave related to our experience of intensity or brightness |
| pupil | a hole in the iris where light enters the eye |
| iris | the colored muscle circling the pupil |
| lens | a membrane at the front of the eye that focuses the incoming light on the retina |
| accommodation | the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina |
| retina | the surface on the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells |
| rods | photoreceptor cells that primarily supports nighttime vision |
| cones | photoreceptor cells that are responsible for high-resolution color vision |
| optic nerve | the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain |
| blind spot | the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye where there are no photoreceptors |
| fovea | where cones are most densely clustered in a pit in the back of the retina |
| trichromatic theory | three types of cones: red, blue, and green work together to produce colors |
| opponent process theory | opposing retinal processes enable color vision, explains afterimages |
| feature detectors | Specialized cells in the visual cortex that respond most actively to specific stimuli |
| visual association cortex | the region of the brain where objects are reconstructed from prior knowledge and information collected by the feature detectors |
| Prosopagnosia | face blindness |
| phi phenomenon | an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession |
| pitch | the highness or lowness of a sound |
| middle ear | contains eardrum and ossicles/hammer anvil and stirrup |
| Ossicles | three tiny bones in the middle ear (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) |
| inner ear | contains cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs |
| cochlea | a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses |
| basilar membrane | structure in the cochlea where auditory cilia are located |
| Proprioception | our sense of body position |
| vestibular system | the sensory system primarily responsible for balance |
| kinesthesis | the senses responsible for monitoring the position and movement of the body |
| olfaction | sense of smell |
| Epithelium | a mucous membrane in the nasal cavity that contains the olfactory receptor neurons |
| olfactory bulb | a brain structure located above the nasal cavity where information is communicated to the primary olfactory cortex via the olfactory tract |
| glomeruli | a spherical cluster of neurons in the olfactory bulb |
| primary olfactory cortex | in anterior temporal lobe where smell is processed |
| gustation | sense of taste |
| Gestalt Psychology | the whole is greater than the sum of its parts |
| binocular cues | depth information gathered from two eyes |
| binocular disparity | the difference between the images projected on our two eyes |
| monocular cues | depth cues that can be perceived with only one eye |
| size constancy | Perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed |
| color constancy | the ability to recognize colors despite changes in lighting |
| perceptual set | mental predisposition that influences what we perceive based on recent experience or context |
| neurons | the cellular building blocks of the brain |
| neuroscience | study of how nerves and cells send and receive information from the brain, body, and spinal cord |
| cerebral cortex | outermost layer of tissue in brain for cognitive skills and ability to experience complex emotions |
| genes | basic physical and functional units of heredity; made up of DNA |
| nervous system | network of neurons running throughout your brain and body composed of CNS and brain |
| nerves | collections of neurons that carry signals from your body to your brain |
| spinal cord | major bundle of nerves encased in your spine that connect your body and brain |
| sensory neurons | carry information from outside world and within your body to your brain |
| motor neurons | send signals to get your motor runnings/make body take action |
| interneurons | connect neurons, interpret, store and retrieve information about the world allowing you to make informed decisions before you act |
| central nervous system (CNS) | the system composed of the brain and spinal cord; information from your body travels to the brain by way of nerves of your spinal cord |
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) | composed of the nerves that connect the parts of your body to your brain |
| sympathetic nervous system | acts on blood vessels, organs, and glands in ways that prepare the body for action, especially in life-threatening situations (fight or flight) |
| parasympathetic nervous system | acts on blood vessels, organs, and glands in a way that returns the body to a resting state by both counteracting and complementing the actions of the sympathetic system (rest and digest) |
| hormones | blood-borne chemicals that travel through the circulatory system enabling the brain to regulate the body's activity |
| endocrine system | a network of glands that produces and releases hormones into the bloodstream to regulate the body's activities |
| adrenal glands | endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys; produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and cortisol that are central to the stress response |
| pituitary gland | the master endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, that in addition to producing its own hormones regulates hormone production in other glands |
| occipital lobe | vision |
| temporal lobe | hearing, object memory |
| parietal lobe | touch, spacial awareness, map of the body's skin surface |
| frontal lobe | complex though; planning control of movement, map of the body's muscles |
| insular lobe | taste, awareness of internal organs |
| hippocampus | memories of time and place; spatial navigation |
| amygdala | emotional associations |
| basal ganglia | planning and executing movement |
| thalamus | sensory pathways to and from cortex |
| hypothalamus | master controller of the brain and body; regulation of bodily homeostasis |
| tegmentum | eye and head orienting |
| ventral tegmental area | reward pathway for subcortical motor system |
| substantia nigra | regulates basal ganglia subcortical motor system |
| pons | regulation of breathing, relays sensation to the cortex and subcortex |
| medulla oblongata | vital survival functions including breathing and heart rate, critical reflexes such as coughing and swallowing |
| reticular formation | arousal and attentiveness, sleep and wakefulness |
| cerebellum | coordination, precision, balance, accurate timing, overall cognition |
| insular lobe | helps us perceive the inside of our bodies |
| neocortex | newest cortex, supports our most complex functions, including language, thought, problem solving and imagination |
| primary sensory areas | the first regions of the cerebral cortex to receive signals from a sensory organ via its sensory nerve |
| primary motor cortex | responsible for voluntary movement |
| primary somatosensory cortex | responsible for sense of touch |
| association cortex | integrates information coming in from the senses with existing knowledge to produce a meaningful experience of the world |
| limbic system | often associated with emotion; bridges the older, lower brain regions that regulate the body with the newer, higher brain structures more related to complex mental functions |
| hippocampus | component of the limbic system crucial for certain aspects of memory, the ability to navigate the environment, and the ability to think about the future |
| parts of the limbic system | hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus |
| brainstem | consists of the midbrain, pons, medulla, and reticular formation, collects sensory signals from the body and sends signals down from the brain to create movement, and also plays role in emotion related changes in your body |
| executive functions | cognitive processes that allow you to plan, focus attention, and organize multiple tasks to complete your goals |
| corpus callosom | relays neural information between the two hemispheres, supporting contralateral communication |
| contralateral | opposite side organization of the brain |
| brain networks | the collections of brain regions that are connected and work together to support brain functions |
| lesion | tissue destruction in brain |
| Wernicke's area | language comprehension |
| Broca's area | speech production |
| Wernicke's aphasia | inability to comprehend speech |
| Broca's aphasia | inability to produce speech |
| single cell recordings | a measurement of the electrical activity of a single neuron, help plan treatment of various disorders |
| EEG | uses amplifiers to record waves in electrical activity that sweep across the brain, help diagnose brain states |
| PET | injects radioactive glucose into a persons bloodstream, which can be tracked into images to show brain activity |
| fMRI | measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow |
| MRI | uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce images that allows us to see structures within the brain |
| deep brain stimulation (DBS) | treatment for depression helps alter activity of brain regions that have been abnormally active |
| transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) | creates a temporary and reversible disruption or enhancement of cortical brain function that allows scientists to study brain regions and their functions |
| transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) | very low levels of direct current stimulate brain function, such as enhancing hand-eye coordination |
| Dendrites | receive chemical messages from other neurons |
| cell body/soma | collects neural impulses, contains the cell nucleus, and provides life sustaining functions for the cell |
| axon | transports electrical impulses to other neurons via terminal branches |
| terminal branches | convert electrical impulses into chemical messages |
| myelin sheath | layer of fatty tissue that insulates axons to ensure that electrical messages travel fast and meet less resistance |
| glia | insulate, support, and nourish neurons, contribute to information processing and development |
| action potential | rapid change in voltage created by a neuron when it is sufficiently stimulated to surpass a critical threshold; serves as the basis for neural signaling |
| ion channels | allow chemical ions to enter and exit the neuronal membrane to generate the voltage for the resting and action potentials |
| depolarization | first phase of action potential when the voltage becomes more positive |
| voltage threshold | necessary for a neuron to fire action potential |
| Repolarization | membrane returns to its resting potential |
| refractory period | a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired |
| excitatory message | a chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon |
| inhibitory message | a chemical message that prevents or decreases the likelihood that a receiving neuron will fire |
| synapse gap where sending neuron communicates with dendrites or cell body of the receiving neuron | |
| Neurotransmission | the process of transferring information from one neuron to another at a synapse |
| Reuptake | a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron |
| three major classes of neurotransmitters | amino acids, monoamines, and acetylcholine |
| amino acid NTs | glutamate, GABA, glycine |
| monoamine NT's | serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine |
| agonist | a chemical the mimics the action of a neutrotransmitter |
| antagonist | a chemical that competes with a naturally occurring neurotransmitter to neurotransmission |
| phenotype | observable characteristics of an individual resulting from an interaction of genotype and environment |
| genotype | genetic makeup of an organism |
| allele | variant of a gene |
| gene expression | turning on and off genes in a cell to determine how it functions |
| epigenetics | the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change |
| behavioral genetics | the study of how genetic factors influence trait variation between individuals |
| heritability | measures degree of heredity |
| neural plasticity | the brain's ability to physiologically modify, regenerate, and reinvent itself constantly over the course of a lifetime |
| critical periods | periods early in life during which very specific experiences must occur to ensure the normal development of a characteristic or behavior |
| neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons |
| neural plasticity | the brain's ability to physiologically modify, regenerate, and reinvent itself constantly over the course of a lifetime |
| critical periods | periods early in life during which very specific experiences must occur to ensure the normal development of a characteristic or behavior |
| damage plasticity | refers to neural modification following injury |
| adult plasticity | refers to the shaping and reshaping of neural circuits throughout adulthood, which occur every day as you experience your world |
| stem cells | cells that have not yet undergone gene expression to differentiate into specialized cell types |
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