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Foundation of Ling
ESL - Foundation of Linguistics
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Academic Functions of Language | describe, define, explain, compare, contrast, make predictions, persuade |
| Social Functions of Language | convey info, feelings, and create bonds |
| Functions of Language | communicate facts, thoughts or opinions; express emotions, ritualistic pleasantries, record info, influence reality, facilitate thought and memory; express personal or collective identity |
| Accentedness | how pronunciation differs from native; affects comprehensibility and intelligibility; prioritize based on intelligibility |
| Respect Home Language | positive environment, recognize abilities in first language, treat all language equally, involve parents, home culture presentations, translations from first language |
| Dialect | variation of one or more feature of spoken language intelligible in larger community; large variation that affects intelligibility is separate language |
| Dialects | arise when spread across large area |
| Difference in dialects | may slow language comprehension and acquisition |
| Socialinguistics | Study of factors that lead to variation in language use; ex: region, gender, class, ethnicity, age, occupation, bilingual status |
| Sociolect | Variations shared by members of same social class |
| Aspiration Dialect | Use language patterns of class you want to join |
| World English | spread of English as global language of business and science; existence of many regional and national English dialects |
| Scholars of World English | map spread along lines of colonial influence through commercial and scientific hubs, among world's educated and economic elite, through instruments of modern tech. |
| Digolssia | Use of 2 languages or 2 forms of language in a single speech communication |
| High form | formal, has written form, taught in school, associated with prestige |
| Low form | acquired rather than taught, informal settings, signals low status, lacks written form |
| Code Switching | alternating between two languages |
| Classic Diglossia | two forms of single language |
| Extended Diglossia | alternate between two languages depending on context |
| Morphological Interference | ability to learn L2 is influenced by morphology in L1; languages differ in how words are formed and type of information that can be conveyed in a single word |
| Semantics | study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences |
| Denotation | word in most literal definition |
| Connotation | associations of emotions that a word evokes; may change over time |
| Homonym | words spelled alike or sound alike but have different meanings and origins |
| Homographs | two words spelled alike; ex: entrance - entrance |
| Homophones | two words spelled alike and sound alike ex bear - bare |
| Pronoun | word that takes place of a noun |
| Antecedent | noun phrase |
| Personal Pronoun | specific person or object |
| Possessive Pronouns | indicate ownership |
| Indefinite Pronouns | non-specific persons or things: anybody, everything, no one, someone, etc |
| Subjective Pronouns | used when pronoun serves as a subject or compliments a subject; ex: I, you, he/she/it, we, you and they |
| Objective Pronouns | used when the pronoun serves as an object; ex me, you, him/her/it, us, you, and them |
| Noun | word that names a person, place, thing, quality or action |
| Common Nouns | types or classes of things that have more than one member; ex: president, state; not capitalized. |
| Proper Nouns | refer to specific people and things and are capitalized; ex: President Lincoln, Florida |
| Countable Nouns | things that can be counted; singular and plural forms; use articles |
| Unaccountable Nouns/Mass Nouns | cannot be counted; do not have plurals and do not use articles |
| Concrete Nouns | things that cannot be perceived by the senses, ideas, concepts or beliefs |
| Transformational/Generative Grammar | Chomsky hypothesizes that surface structure of any language can be explained as a transformation of an innate structure of language which humans all share in common |
| Principles | rules of hypothesized universal grammar |
| Parameters | constraints that any actual language places on the set of universal rules; ex: verb must precede object |
| Eight Parts of English Speech | Noun, verb, pronoun, adjective, adverb, preposition, interjection, conjunction |
| Noun | names a person, place, idea, or thing |
| Verb | expresses and action or state of being |
| Pronoun | word that replaces a noun or noun phrase |
| Adjective | word that modifies a noun typically describing quantity, quality, or by distinguishing one noun from another |
| Adverb | word that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb; often shows degree, manner, place or time |
| Preposition | word that is usually combined with a noun or pronoun to establish relationship between the noun and another part of the sentence; relationships include location or time |
| Interjection | word or phrase used to express emotion or surprise |
| Conjunction | word that links sentences, clauses, phrases, or words; examples include and, or, but |
| Coordinating Conjunctions | link together words or phrases that have the same grammatical function; for, and, not, but, or, yet, so |
| Correlative Conjunctions | appear in pairs and join words or phrases with same function, either...or, both...and, no sooner... than |
| Subordinating Conjunctions | join unequal parts of a sentence - adverbial clauses, when, because, before, if |
| Adverbial Clauses | type of dependent clause that serves as an adverb to an independent clause |
| Transitive Verb | requires an object to constitute a complete thought ex I throw a ball. |
| Intransitive Verb | doesn't require an object ex I jumped. |
| Linking Verbs | connect subject to word or phrase that describes the subject; to be is most common |
| Finite Verbs | verbs conjugated to agree with a subject |
| Non-Finite Verbs | infinitives, gerunds, and participles |
| Infinitive | verb with word to in front of it ex: to eat |
| Gerund | is and "ing" verb functioning as a noun ex I like swimming |
| Participle | word formed from verb but used as either adjective, adverb, noun or part of a compound verb. ex: past participle "gone" forms a compound noun in the phrase has gone |
| Tense | refers to the location of events in time; expressed by changing verb forms - past and present |
| Present | simple - I walk progressive - I am walking perfect - I have walked perfect progressive - I have been walking |
| Past | simple - I walked progressive - I was walking perfect - I had walked perfect progressive - I have been walking |
| Future | simple - I will walk progressive - I will be walking perfect - I will have walked perfect progressive - I will have been walking |
| Progressive forms | continuous forms; to be + ing |
| Perfect Tenses | combining a form of verb to have and the past participle of the main verb |
| Perfect Progressive Tenses | using features of both the progressive and perfect tenses |
| Syntax | way in which words are combined to create phrases, clauses and sentences in order to be considered correct |
| Grammar | ways which words are combined in reality to achieve effective communication; broader term than syntax includes phonology, semantics and even punctuation |
| Syntactic Form | most common form is subject-verb-object; many languages constructed differently |
| Passive Voice word order | object-verb-subject ex: The man was bitten by the dog |
| Appositive | noun, noun phrase, or noun clause that serves to explain or identify another noun nearby in the sentence ex: Your brother Skip called me. Skip is appositive identifying the noun phrase your brother. |
| Apposition | Your brother Skip called me. Skip and your brother are in apposition |
| Essential Appositives | not set off by punctuation marks; not essential set off by commas, dashes or parenthesis ex: Skip called me. Skip is essential to meaning of sentence |
| Subject-Verb Agreement | singular subject with sing verb; plural subject with plural verb |
| Simple Past Exception | stand alone main verb without an auxiliary verb doesn't change when the noun changes ex: The man gave me a box. and The men gave me a box. |
| Compound Subjects | two or more subjects joined by and, or or nor. If two subjects are joined by and they should be treated as plural subject. If joined by or or nor the subject nearest the verb should agree with the verb EX Neither the dog nor the cats like liver. |
| Intervening Phrase | when the subject of sentence is separated from the verb by an intervening phrase that contains a noun. Verb agrees with noun EX The students who pass the test receive a prize. |
| Subject Predicate | minimum sentences need |
| Subject | what or whom sentence is about |
| Predicate | tells something about the subject; everything in sentence is either subject or predicate |
| Independent Clause | a clause that can stand alone as a sentence, but can be joined with other clauses to make sentences. |
| Dependent Clause | cannot stand alone as a sentence, but must be combined with another clause or clauses to form a sentence |
| Simple Sentence | single independent clause - complete thought consisting of subject and a predicate. |
| Compound Sentence | consists of two or more independent clauses joined by conjunctions such as and or or. |
| Complex Sentence | consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause joined by subordinating conjunction such as when or because |
| Complex-Compound Sentence | two or more independent clauses joined to one or more dependent clauses |
| Phrasal Verb | idiomatic combination of a verb with another word, usually a preposition or adverbs. EX blow up, break down, chip in, get away with, add up. word combinations are idiomatic and yet fixed verbal phrases may be split when used in a sentence EX Can you add them up? |
| Challenges of Phrasal Verbs | idiomatic meanings arbitrary choice of preposition or adverb to couple with the verb contexts in which they can and cannot be split |
| Predicate Nominative | noun or noun phrase that follows a linking verb and is in predicate of sentence EX John's favorite book is War and Peace. War and Peace is predicate nominative |
| Predicate Adjective | word or words that follow a linking verb and modify subject of a sentence EX The dog is brown. Brown is a predicative adjective. follows the noun is paired with a linking verb |
| Ordinary or Attributive Adjectives | precede the noun they modify |
| Classification of Sentences | Compound and complex sentences - according to syntax. Purpose: Declarative - makes a statement Interrogative - pose a question Imperative - give a command Exclamatory - express strong feelings |
| Modal Phrase | an auxiliary verb that adds shades of meaning to main verb by adding opinion, attitude or feeling. Most common would, will, can, could, may, must |
| Challenges of Modals | May not have corresponding forms often have several unrelated meanings irregular in their conjugation when combined with another verb, second verb is not used in its infinitive form |
| Tag Question | declarative statement turned into question by addition of interrogative fragment EX Portland is the capital of Maine, isn't it? Often rhetorical used to communicate desired answer more complex in English |
| Grice's Cooperative Principle | focus how pragmatics function in language - shared assumptions, background knowledge, and implied meaning. when we engage in conversation we assume other will cooperate in achieving understanding by speaking truthfully, logically, and concisely. What we mean is often implied |
| Four Maxims of Conversation | Maxim of quality - speak the truth Maxim of quantity - provide as much info and detail as necessary Maxim of relevance - will stay on topic Maxim of manner - avoid ambiguity, logical organization |
| Gerund | formed using -ing form of verb and function as nouns EX Hiking to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro is hard work. Hiking is a gerund |
| Present Participles | form using -ing form of verb and function as progressing verbs, or as adjectives EX Hiking to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro, John fell and sprained his ankle." hiking is participle that initiates adjectival phrase modifying the noun John. |
| Austin's Speech Act Theory | distinguishing between locution (what a person says) illocution (what a person means) and perlocution (effect of statement) |
| Pragmatic Failure | person fails to understand what is meant even though he understood what was said |
| Phonetics | Study of speech sounds in isolation; how sounds are produced and perceived |
| Phonology | How speech sounds function in context ways sounds are used to create a unit of meaning |
| Phonological Rules | How sounds change depending on where they occur and how they are used in speech |
| Deletion Rule | unstressed vowel is often deleted in rapid speech such as /o/ in "police" |
| Syllables | have onset and rime |
| Onset | beginning phoneme of syllable only consonants can be onsets in English no onset if begins with a vowel |
| Rime | vowel and any consonants that follow onset |
| Classification of Phonemes in words | Beginning - 1st phoneme in word End/Final - last phoneme in word Medial - any phonemes in the middle |
| International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) | created 1888 standard system of symbols for all phonemes in human languages Can refer to sounds independent of how represented in specific language Use Latin alphabet, Greek alphabet, & Icelandic alphabet |
| Phoneme | smallest unit that makes a difference in meaning |
| Graphemes | individual letters or groups of letters that depict how a sound is written in a given language |
| Digraph | two-letter grapheme |
| Positive Transfer | similarities between native language and English that make learning easier |
| Complicates Language Learning | 26 letters make 44 sounds digraphs - 2 letters make a unique sound dipthong - 2 or more vowels in single syllable (au) consonant clusters - 2 or more consonants make single sound (wr) |
| Classifying Consonants | Location of vocal tract - bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar, alveopalatal, velar, glottal Manner produced - stops, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, glides Voiced/Unvoiced |
| Vowels | all voiced classified by position and movement of tongue 1. high, middle, low 2. front, central, back |
| Activities to Improve Pronunciation | Audio recordings and students repeat word or phrase Self-reflection Singing Choral reading Modeled speech Practice with focus on pronunciation |
| Segmental | Discrete identified speech segment that contributes sound in sequential pattern EX phonemes, syllables, dipthongs, blends |
| Suprasegmentals | Phonetic properties spread over broader range of speech segments such as pitch (tone & intonation) or stress |
| Prosody | synonym for super-segmental required for full linguistic competency misplaced stress/tone can cause communication failure |
| Prosodic Features of Language | Pitch - tone and intonation Stress - difference in force applied to an element of speech usually a syllable Pitch - difference in frequency of vibration of vocal cords: continuum between high and low Tone - pitch to distinguish between words Intonation - pitch rise & fall in sentence; used to distinguish statement and question Multi-Syllabic words - have a standard pattern of stress; change in pattern of stress may change meaning EX con-VERT CON-vert |
| Independent/Free Morpheme | can occur by itself |
| Bound Morpheme/Affix | con only occur in combination EX prefixes & suffixes Have meaning and function |
| Phonetic Interference | issues learning the sound system use sounds from native language |
| Language Interference | features of native language affects ability to learn second language |
| Reducing Phonetic Interference | Introduce word in speech before writing early instruction should focus on repetition of unfamiliar sounds |
| Word Analysis | break into components to understand the meaning |
| Constituent Morphemes | word parts prefixes roots adverbs - often have ly added to an adjective |
| Compound words | Combine two separate words meaning may be difficult to predict not common in other languages some have figurative meanings EX brainstorm some are from older forms of English EX cobweb |
| Root | base or free morpheme can stand alone |
| Infixes | occur in the middle of a root (rare in English) |
| Inflectional Affixes | may change number, gender, case, or tense of root but not lexical meaning or grammatical form EX -s |
| Derivational Affix | may change meaning and/or grammatical form EX un |
| Etymology | Study of the origin of words English has many Greek and Latin roots and affixes |
| Learning Roots & Affixes | ability to recognize basic meaning of multiple words means to decipher meaning |
| Derivation | formation of new words by adding affix to root |
| Derivational Affixes | affixes that change the meaning or word class |
| Cognates | words with common origin and retain similarities in meaning, spelling and pronunciation within 1 lang EX biology - biography within 2 lang EX biologia - biology |
| False Cognates | Similar but with different meaning EX embarazada - embarassed |
| Loanwords | word adopted from a foreign language without translation from German, Danish, French, Greek, Latin, Spanish, Native American |
| Cognates and ELLS | help if two languages are closely related use to deduce the meaning of other words and sentences |
| Morpheme Aquisition | in consistent order Stage 1 - "ing" of progressive verbs, plural "-s", and copula "to be" (is, am, are) Stage 2 - auxiliary verb "to be" (He is eating.); articles (the, a) Stage 3 - irregular past tense (He went out.) Stage 4 - regular past tense (ed); 3rd person singular (-s); possessives ('s_ Teachers can use the order to teach and wait to correct some errors |
| Literal Language | means exactly what the words say |
| Figurative Language | meaning is different than literal |
| Metaphors | compare/equate two unlike things |
| Similies | compare/equate two unlike things using "like" or "as" |
| Idiom | doesn't necessarily make a comparison many initially carried literal meaning, but has long been forgotten EX beat around the bush |
| Language Ambiguities | arise with homographs or multiple pronunciations (heteronyms) must rely on context to decipher meaning Sentence structure can help with part of speech. |
| Pragmatics | meaning is affected by context |
| Implication | conclusion drawn without being stated |
| Shared Understandings | relied on for conversation communication takes place in a context that creates implicit meaning |
| Pragmatic Features | are non-linguistic influence communication |
| Register | Formality of language more formal in professional |
| Eye Contact | in US signifies transparency |
| Personal Space | varies by culture |
| Gestures | vary by culture |
| Usage | knowing how to construct words/sentences in accordance with formal rules |
| Use | knowing how to use language to achieve objective |
| Significance vs Value | sentences have significance in isolation, but value in context of communicative act |
| Linguistic Competence | understanding to construct communication |
| Communicative Competence | emphais on authentic speech acts and importance of dimensions of communication |
| Connected Speech | pronunciation can be changed by words around it |
| Catenation | joining of last consonant of a word with the beginning vowel of the next word EX an apple - "a napple" |
| Elision | sound is left out of a word EX sandwich - sanwich |
| Assimilation | blending of two sounds to create a new one EX don't you - doan chu |
| Intrusion | insertion of unwritten sound into phrase EX do it - dewit |
| Components of Communicative Comptetence | Linguistic competence - proficiency in grammar, vocab, and orthogrophy Sociolinguistic competence - understanding of how to vary language use on context/audience Discourse competence - knowledge of how to produce cohesive, coherent written/oral text Strategic Competence - ability to avoid/repair communication breakdowns EX paraphrasing or using gestures |
| Discourse | coherent sequence of written and spoken sentences |
| Cohesive Devices | Word or phrase based connectors 1. Add info to broader text - in addition 2. Illustrate effect of previous cause - consequently 3. Clarify previous sentence - That is to say 4. Provide Summary - In conclusion 5. Establish Logical Temporal Order - First, second 6 . Furnish example - for example 7. Qualify/Contrast previous point - however |
| Cohesion | Individual sentences linked in ways that bring them together in a single whole (grammar/rhetoric) |
| Coherence | ideas/content belong together (logic/reality) |
| Cohesive Devices | Reference - word in one sentence refers to word in another sentence. Conjunction - sentence begins with a word/phrase that ties to the previous sentence. Substitution - specific word replaced with general word in subsequent sentence (I doubt he will study. But if he does... Ellipses - intentionally leave out parts of a phrase previously used Descriptor - replace word with descriptor (Edison - the inventor |
| Social Language | used in everyday conversation; often doesn't follow grammatical conventions |
| Academic Language | used in classroom/workplace/standardized assessments expected use of full sentences and higher vocabulary |
| Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BIC) | language of everyday life social language proficient in 6 months failure is rare |
| Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) | academic language formal and academic settings proficient in 7-10 years some never achieve full proficiency |
| Basil Bernstein's Theory of Language Codes | How language is used by a particular social group EX social identity Elaborate code - communicate with strangers or those that don't share experience Restricted code - used with friends and members of a shared community; shared values and assumptions |
| Five Functions of Social Language | 1. Informal - convey info and value its accuracy/relevance 2. Expressive - convey feelings and attitudes 3. Directive - convey orders/exert influence 4. Aesthetic - used creatively/artistically 5. Phatic - used to sustain social relationships |
| Spoken Language | language is less rigid phrases are fundamentals includes repetitions, ellipses, & self-corrections slang first person pronouns |
| Paralanguage | non-verbal features |
| Writing Language | planned formal grammatical structures orderly presentation and evidence comprehensive and complete non-negotiable ELLS tend to write as they speak; teach logical sentence with evidence and examples |
Created by:
aclemens2
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