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Found of Lang Learn
Foundations of Language Learning
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| English Word Order | all languages have subject, verb, and object S-V-O English & Spanish pattern S-O-V Japanese pattern V-S-O Malagasy pattern Spanish - subject can be inferred from the verb English - adjective precedes noun Spanish - nouns cannot modify nouns; possession indicated after the object |
| Behaviorist Theory of First Language | humans learn through reinforcement operant conditioning excludes any theory of mind-reducing complexity of language doesn't explain unique utterances |
| Pivot Grammar | Martin Braine utterances anchored by single word used with open class words EX all gone, all done, all eat when kids move from one word to two word phrases |
| Language Universals | characteristics shared by all world's languages syllables, consonants, vowels (absolute) |
| Non-Absolute Universals | found in high degree but with exceptions |
| Implicational Universals | language properties that occur together EX If A then B |
| Code Switching | 1. speakers switch form one language to another may signal solidarity or familiarity convey associative, technical or figurative meanings 2. Also alterations in discourse in single lang EX change accent to match someone drop "g" for informal working class speach |
| Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis | students learn best in low stress environment boredom/anxiety interfere with learning affective filters natural approach to learning - don't force to speak importance of non-linguistic factors |
| Krashen's Natural Order | certain structures earlier than others first language influences order of elements in 2nd languages |
| Interlanguage | normal part of language learning contains elements & structures of both languages strategy adopted to compensate for limited 2nd language |
| Fossilized | level that allows for effective but limited communication |
| Interlanguage Tendencies | language transfer, overgeneralization |
| Overgeneralization | extends rule beyond scope |
| Sequential Bilingualism | fluency in 3nd language after 1st language is established around 3 years |
| Multi-linguism | use more than one language fluently |
| Simultaneous Bilinguilism | use more than one language fluently |
| Bilingual | slight delays in speech production within normal smaller vocabulary in either language, but combined is on par |
| Effect of Lack of Formal Schooling | Need addition support may have suffered trauma gaps in education lack literacy, learning, and study skills high drop out rate underestimate their achievement |
| Krashen's Monitor Hypothesis | individual inherently knows what is correct learning rules helps them monitor and correct use more feasible in writing when speaking - results in interrupted speech |
| Krashen's Input Hypothesis | Input level higher than mastery level understand comprehensible input with context clues, background knowledge or non-linguistic clue eliminates need for explicit explanation Merrill argues only treats comprehension not production (output hypothesis) |
| Connectionist Theories of Language | apply insights form neuroscience and computer science more neuron fire - more established development of specific connections |
| Bruner's Discovery Learning Theory | learn best when constructing own knowledge through inquiry stages are continuous and can speed through stages language causes cognitive development Bruner is constructivist - active role of learner |
| Five Stage Model of 2nd Language Acquisition | 1. Silent Period/Preproduction Stage - 500 words but uncomfortable speaking 2. Private Speech/Early Production Stage - 1-2 word phrasing; 1000 words; allow abbreviated answers and scaffold 3. Lexical Chunks/Speech Emergence Stage - 3000 words, short phrases & sentences, short conversations 4. Formulaic Speech/Intermediate Production Stage - 6000 words; complex sentences; shift focus to writing 5. Experiment/Simplified Speech - fluency, generalizations |
| Piaget Cognitive Constructionist | language develops in universal identified stages form of adaptation to one's environment language proceeds according to stages of complexity stages not empirically identified undervalues influence of cultural and social interaction representation based on inquiries and activities |
| Holophrase | single word to express a complex thought unanalyzed combinations of 2 or more words move to telegraphic with pivot words adults interpret meaning and child affirms with gestures |
| Five Stage Model of 1st Language (birth - 3) | 1. pre-speech (0-6mnth) - comfort signs when attending to spoken language, distinguishes phonemes 2. Babbling (6-8mnth) - rhythmic sounds with syllables and stops 3. One Word Stage (10-18mnth) - first words; over-extensions; under-extensions 4. Two Word/Telegraphic (18-24mnth) - 2 word phrases; lexical 5. Multi-word Stage (30mnth) - complete sentences, functional grammatical elements. |
| Innate/Universal Grammar Theory | Chomsky - innate language abilities general grammatical categories activated by language exposure language activation device all language shares common properties come to common competence syntax over semantics, pragmatics and discourse doesn't take into account social & psychological aspects |
| Competition Model | MacWhitney interpretation of language cues development & consolidation of neural networks type of connectionist theory rejects idea of innate linguistic structures language develops through interaction of cognitive structures and environment |
| Critical Period Hypothesis | optimal age for language learning Penfield & Lenneberg language depends on brain plasticity (2-puberty) adults rarely develop full fluency |
| Social Constructivism/Social Interaction Theory | Vygotsky importance of social interaction learn from adults zone of proximal development - challenges learned with scaffolding attention to discourse develops in context |
| Language Transfer | influence of L1 on development of L2 become familiar with differences and teach how to overcome |
| Language Interference | negative effect of L1 on learning L2 |
| Contrastive Analysis | compare two languages to identify similarities and differences |
| Positive Transfer | raise confidence spur interest |
| Emergentist Theory | learn through neural networks to process environment they are immersed in born with pattern extraction ability - grow and strengthen neural networks social interaction critical to language development brain finds pattern and meaning contextual, phonological, & morphological cues to determine meaning provide rich, structured, patterned linguistic input |
| Similarities in 1st & 2nd Language Development | predictable stages mistakes are normal rely on context and cues production is harder than comprehension learned best through interactions and taks |
| Differences in 1st & 2nd Language Development | First - no conscious effort; naturally integrated; based on universal grammar; no instruction required; necessary to satisfy desires; cognitive/affective factors are less important Second - requires conscious effort; primarily used in classroom; affected by 1st language grammar; requires instruction; varied motivations, cognitive/affective factors are central. |
| Activities for Silent Period (1st Stage in Language Learning) | yes/no answers gestures draw pictures one to one interaction protected environment low risk class environment |
| Communicative/Constructionist Approach | focus on meaningful experience-based interactions focus on facilitating target language work in pairs/groups/role playing reading, writing, speaking, listening integrated from the beginning construct knowledge through own experiences reality based participatory scenarios most common approach in modern classrooms |
| Silent Way | teacher speech is minimizes model expression & use props to learn basic structures |
| Suggestopedia | music & rhythm to reinforce language patterns scripts to read aloud with games and music later elaborate on script or compare to native language translation |
| Total Physical Response (TPT) | give elementary commands move to more complex move to giving each other commands used as a technique rather than approach now |
| Cognitive Strategies | use to understand task include memorizing, categorizing, summarizing, generalizing, deductive & inductive reasoning variety of strategies are more successful monitor and encourage use of these strategies |
| Metacognitive Strategies | strategies students use to improve own learning EX planning, self-monitoring, prioritizing & goal setting corelated with success monitor and encourage use of these strategies |
| Comprehension-Based Approaches | build student receptive skills- listening & reading first Listening comprehension most fundamental linguistic skill least stressful language skill don't force to speak until ready silent period expected |
| Natural Way Methodology | Krashen & Terrell leading example of Comprehension-Based Approach |
| Grammar Translation Method | explanation of grammar structure in student's native language read difficult text and translate |
| Audio-Lingual Method | relies on repetition and drills skills built from simple to complex structures focus on pronunciation & minimization of errors don't reflect real world use |
| Modern Approaches | encourage dialogue in realistic settings focus on communication |
| Long's Interaction Hypothesis | emphasis on conversational interaction advances when have to negotiate to be understood- paraphrasing, restating, context clues, asking for clarification conversationalists should be of equal status/social position for free conversation |
| Interaction vs Input Hypothesis | both emphasize comprehensible input just above language level Critics - clarifications are not always successful |
| Contrastive Analysis | study of similarities and differences between languages can be used to anticipate difficulties Spanish & French - verb "to be" becomes have Arabic - adjectives follow nouns Haitian Creole - verbs do not change Russian - present tense to convey ongoing actions |
| Oxford's Strategies Inventory | Six Categories 1. memorization - repetition & formulaic expressions 2. cognitive strategies - analyzing and drawing conclusions 3. elaboration - connecting to known 4. compensation - code switching or insertion of phrases in other language 5. metacognitive - self-monitoring, planning 6. affective - use to control own emotions; asking for help or clarification 7. social - employ language socially; role playing; asking for clarification |
| Strategic Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) | Oxford identify strategies used by ELLs 1st for English learning a foreign language 2nd for students learning English as a foreign language used for research & to give learning profile line of research identified successful strategies |
| Cognitive Academic Language (CALLA) | model based on strategies |
| Strategic Self-Regulating Model (S2R) | Oxford's updated model |
| DeKeyser's Skill Acquisition Theory | Learn skills gradually transforming declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge through meaningful use and practice Competency requires declarative and procedural Move toward automaticity |
| Cummins Common Underlying Proficiency Hypothesis (CUP | bilingual draw on common pool of cognitive linguistic abilities to speak either language L1 with facilitate L2 "Dual Iceberg Model" |
| Sperate Underlying Proficiency (SUP) | Each language is processed and stored seperately No positive transfer between languages Propose English immersion programs L1 will slow L2 Research doesn't support these ideas- slow language acquisition |
| Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) | emphasize cognitive and metacognitive approaches teach learning strategies students self-plan and evaluate focus on ELLs already proficient in social English to develop academic English |
| Taxonomy of Learning Strategies | metacognitive cognitive social/affective |
| Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) | ADD VI SLD TBI autism Multiple emotional Intellectual speech/lang HI deaf-blind |
| Meyers Barriers to Instruction | Challenges (loads) for language learning Cognitive - # of unfamiliar concepts Cultural - untaught/assumed cultural Language - unfamiliar language Learning - unfamiliar activity |
| Effect of Age | Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) - 2-puberty; ability to learn declines over time Children - enjoy more exposure; more motivation; less likely to be discouraged Adults - cognitive & experiential advantages; more rapid progress in syntax & grammar; self-conscious about errors |
| Sped Diagnosis | ELL learning characteristics resemble native speakers with disabilities |
| Acculturation Patterns | acculturation - adaption to culture of another; minority to majority |
| Assimilation | minority resembles majority |
| Preservation | keep own distinct culture |
| Transculturation | Two equally dominant cultures mixing & adopting elements of the other |
| Schumman's Acculturation Model | Success in L2 related to acculturation into L2 culture Join culture leads to more language experience Factors limiting acculturation - perception of L2 community cultural enclave or integrated L1 & L2 linguistically similar |
| Influence of Linguistic Background | Proficiency in L1 1. have ability to distinguish sounds, words, & syntax patterns 2. have useful cognitive skills (compare, generalize, predict) 3. similarities which allow for transfer |
| Common Underlying Proficiency Model (CUP) | all language learning uses common core of cognitive linguistic knowledge confirmed by research |
| Bloom's Extended Definition of Affective Domain | Five Processes that lead to student growth in affective response and understanding 1. receiving 2. responding 3. valuing preferences 4. organization - value system framework 5. characterizing - internalizes Experiences impact affective outlook |
| Bloom Three Learning Domains | cognitive sensory affective taxonomy of concepts |
| Teacher Expectations | self-fulfilling prophecy shape error correction strategies based on language development focus on errors that impede communication language practice and authentic communication opportunities Language is more important than error correction |
| Self-Esteem | attitude of approval/disapproval toward oneself self-esteem and academic success are linked |
| Brown Typology of Self-Esteem | difference between types of self-esteem |
| General/Global Self-Esteem | broad sense of self-worth formed in late childhood and changes little over time |
| Situational Self-Esteem | specific to a certain domain |
| Task Self-Esteem | specific to a task or activity |
| Characteristics of ELL with LD | LD is rarely in just one language Deficit doesn't improve over time or after targeted intervention Language deficit that comes and goes Domain specific deficiency |
| Dornyei's L2 Motivational Self-Esteem | Sources of motivation 1. Ideal L2 Self- who they would like to become 2. Ought to L2 Self - sense of obligation 3. L2 Learning Experience - situational motivations Appeal to ideal L2 self Create motivating conditions Initial individual motivation Maintain and protect motivation Encourage self-monitoring |
| Self-Efficacy | Self-Efficacy - perception of own competence Self- Esteem - overall sense of self-approval |
| Attribution Theory (Weiner) | Student believes cause of success or failure due to ability, effort, luck High Self-Efficacy work harder after set back Praise for effort - perform better Growth mindset |
| Inhibition | inner impediment of free expression or action Successful language learning involves risk taking Reduce student inhibition |
| Low Affective Classroom | classroom group identity for risk taking |
| Inhibited | silent period is necessary break down task early success |
| Affective Filter | emotional response to language learning environment High affective filter- hinders learning |
| Factors of High Affective Filter | overcorrection of errors fear of speech performance test anxiety Teachers - Be aware of personality differences Be aware of language development difference Errors expected and routine limit summative testing and its significance |
| Family Expectations | High academic expectations - more likely to succeed Reinforcement & encouragement School involvement Engagement in homework Proficiency affected by acculturation Parent limited English proficiency Different language abilities may cause conflict & withdrawal |
| Anxiety | Abnormal sense of apprehension & stress Can be a trait or response to experience Types 1. over ability to communicate 2. peer view of ability 3. evaluation & grades is debilitative - detracts from learning |
| Facilitative Anxiety | greater focus greater effort competitiveness |
| Language Ego | Guiora - 2nd language learning changes perceived identity original identity tied to L1 competency less formed ego easier language learning |
| Thick & Thin Language Ego Boundaries | thick boundaries - fewer inhibitions in language learning |
| Political & Institutional Factors | Educational policy affected ESL program structure Differences in ESL programs 1. degree of integration 2. recognize and showcase minority language and cultures 3. community and parent events to showcase minority cultures |
| Motivation (Gardener) | Instrumentally motivated - learning to achieve goal Integrative Motivated - 1. want to fully join L2 community 2. more reliable and durable Extrinsic - rewards and punishments Intrinsic - more reliable State motivation - context and situation dependent Motivation trait - differences in nature source and degrees |
| Motivation Trait | differences in nature, sources and degrees |
| Poverty | Effects of - 1. cognitive - lag behind 2. emotional deficits 3. stress 50% of ELLs - low income |
| Risks from Poverty | erratic attendance behavior issues apathy negotiating interactions with peers changes in behavior |
| Elective Bilingualism | Valdes choose to study learn in artificial environment L1 usually remains dominant |
| Circumstantial Bilingualism | Valdes forced need to survive and succeed greater mastery of L2 likely L1 & L2 complimentary |
| Factors Affecting Bilingualism | Valdes distinction, elective/circumstantial, important with adult learners for children - age of immigration temporary or permanent immigrations |
| Krashen's Acquisition Hypothesis | unconscious natural process use language for real life with native speakers leads to fluency adults must be immersed to acquire |
| Krashen's Learning Hypothesis | conscious process study parts of language in sequence cannot be transformed into acquisition critics say learned can be acquired |
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