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A&P 2 lecture test 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The nervous system initiates responses more ________ (slowly/quickly) than the endocrine system. | quickly |
| The endocrine system releases hormones into the ___________(brain/blood), unlike the nervous system which uses action potentials and neurotransmitters. | blood |
| The nervous system targets ________ (specific/nonspecific) locations while the endocrine system targets _____________ (specific/nonspecifically). | specific, nonspecifically |
| neurotransmitters act over ________ distances and hormones act over _________ distances. (short/long) (same choices for both) | short, long |
| Both pituitary glands are located in the skull protected in a bone called ________ ________. | stella turcica |
| The _________ (thymus/hypothalamus) synthesizes two hormones for the posterior pituitary gland to release. | hypothalamus |
| The thyroid gland is located in the _________ (anterior/posterior) neck. | anterior |
| The parathyroid gland is located on the __________ (front/back) of the thyroid gland. | back |
| The adrenal glands sit on top of the _________ (liver/kidneys). | kidneys |
| the pineal gland is in the diencephalon and secretes ___________ (growth hormone/melatonin). | melatonin |
| The pancreas can be found behind the __________(stomach/gallbladder) and releases insulin and glucagon. | stomach |
| The ovaries are located in the ________ (abdominal/pelvic) body cavity. | pelvic |
| The placenta produces estrogen and __________ (progesterone/epinephrine). | progesterone |
| ____________ are long distance chemical signals that travel in blood or lymph throughout the body | hormones |
| _____________ are short distance chemical signals that exert their effects on the same cells that secrete them, like contracting smooth muscle | autocrines |
| _____________ are short distance chemical signals, acting locally but affect cell types other than those releasing the chemicals. | paracrines |
| The majority of hormones are _____________. They're water soluble and can't cross plasma membranes. | amino acid based. |
| One category of hormones is ________s. they're synthesized from cholesterol, and only gonadal and adrenocortical hormones are them. They're lipid soluble and can cross the plasma membrane | steroid |
| There's a class of hormone that isn't really a hormone called ___________. they include leukotrines and prostaglandins, but they don't classify fully as hormones because they're more localized. | eicosanoids |
| receptors for water soluble hormones have to be: a) in the plasma membrane or b) inside the cell (just put a or b) | a |
| receptors for lipid soluble hormones are a) in the plasma membrane or b) inside the cell (a or b) | b |
| Amino acid based hormones signal with _______ ___________, where a hormone binds to a receptor in the plasma membrane. | second messengers |
| During the cyclic AMP signaling mechanism, the amino acid based hormone binds to a receptor _________ (outside/inside) a cell. The receptor activates a ___ protein. The protein then activates the effector enzyme _________ _________. | outside, G, adenylate cyclase |
| After the adenylate cyclase is activated during cyclic AMP, it converts ATP to __________ _____. | Cyclic AMP |
| The Cyclic AMP signaling mechanism activates _______ ________, which are enzymes that phosphorylate various proteins, usually other enzymes. | protein kinases |
| Instead of cAMP (cyclic AMP), some hormones use a signaling mechanism called ______-___________. It uses intracellular calcium ions as a second messenger instead of cAMP. | PIP2-calcium |
| lipid soluble hormones and thyroid hormone can diffuse through the plasma membrane and activate intracellular receptors. They make their way to bind to a specific region of _____. | DNA |
| cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) is a ______ _______ for selected hormones | second messenger |
| The synthesis and release of most hormones are regulated by a _________ feedback mechanism. | negative |
| __________ stimuli is when glands secrete their hormones in a direct response to changing blood levels of ions and nutrients. For example, the thyroid gland. | humoral |
| _________ stimuli is when nerve fibers control hormone release. A good example would be the response to stress where the SNS stimulates the adrenal medulla to release norepinephrine and epinephrine. | neural |
| _________ stimuli is when glands release their hormones in response to other hormones. The release or inhibition of hormones from the hypothalamus regulates the anterior pituitary hormones. | hormonal |
| The ________ lobe is a part of the brain and is actually connected to the hypothalamus via neural connection. | posterior |
| The posterior pituitary lobe releases __________ and ____________. | oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone |
| The anterior pituitary can release ______ ( a number) hormones, all of them including peptides or proteins. | six |
| ________ is released by the posterior lobe, and is a strong stimulant of uterine contraction and is released in significantly higher amounts during childbirth. It uses a second messenger system to release Ca^2+ | oxytocin |
| _________ __________ is a hormone released by the posterior lobe and inhibits urine formation. It prevents wide swings in water balance, helping avoid dehydration. | Antidiuretic hormone |
| TSH, adrenocorticotropic hormone, FSH, and luteinizing hormones (all of them anterior lobe hormones) are all ________ hormones, meaning they regulate the secretory action of other endocrine glands. | tropic |
| ________ _________ is made by the anterior lobe and is a tissue building hormone with metabolic and growth-producing actions. | growth hormone |
| _______ ________ hormone is made by the anterior lobe and stimulates normal development and secretory activity of the thyroid gland. It follows the hypothalamic-pituitary-target endocrine organ feedback loop. | thyroid-stimulating hormone |
| _______________ hormone is secreted by corticotropic cells of the anterior pituitary. It stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones like glucocoritcoids that help the body resist stressors | adrenocorticotropic |
| ___________ hormones include FSH and luteinizing hormone, and regulate the function of the gonads. comes from anterior pituitary | gonadotropin |
| ___________ ________ hormone stimulates the production of gametes (sperm and egg) | follicle stimulating |
| ___________ hormone promotes production of gonadal hormones. | luteinizing |
| ______ is a protein hormone from anterior pituitary, and is only really known for stimulating milk production. its release is controlled by an inhibitory hormone called prolactin inhibiting hormone, also known as dopamine. | prolactin |
| ________ ________ is a hormone that contains two iodine amine hormones, called thyroxine and triiodothyronine. it affects essentially any cell in the body. The main effects are increasing metabolism and heat, regulating tissue growth, blood pressure. | Thyroid hormone |
| Calcitonin is a ___________ hormone released by the parafollicular in the thyroid gland. it's released in response to rising Ca^2+ levels, but doesn't have a known role. At high doses, it inhibits osteoclast activity and helps incorporation in bone matrix | polypeptide |
| the first step of TH synthesis is when __________ is synthesized and discharged into a thyroid follicle. | thyroglobulin |
| the second step of TH synthesis is when ________ is trapped, taken from the blood. This requires active transport | iodide |
| the third step of TH synthesis involves oxidizing __________ to ________. | iodide, iodine |
| in the forth step of TH synthesis, iodine is attached to _________. this reaction happens at the junction of the follicular cell and colloid. One iodine makes monoiodotyrosine and two makes diiodotyrosine | tyrosine |
| The fifth step in TH synthesis involves iodinated tyrosines linking to form ______ and _______. | T3. T4 |
| The sixth step in TH synthesis is when thyroglobulin is __________. the follicular cells must reclaim iodinated thyroglobulin via endocytosis | endocytosed |
| the 7th step in TH synthesis has lysosomal enzymes that split ______ and ______ from thyroglobulin, then the hormones diffuse into the bloodstream. | T3, T4 |
| ___________ hormone is released from the parathyroid gland (yeah its on the nose) and it controls calcium balance in the blood, which is essential. | parathyroid |
| PTH hormone increases _________ activity in bones, increases ______ resorption in kidneys, and activates vitamin __ in the kidney | osteoclast, Ca2+, D |
| ____________ is a hormone from the adrenal gland that increases blood levels of Na and decreases K. This in turn raises blood pressure and volume | Mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) |
| a hormone that promotes gluconeogenesis and hyperglycemia, mobilizing fats for energy and metabolism. assists body to resist stressors, depresses inflammatory and immune responses | glucocorticoids (cortisol) |
| hormones with insignificant effects in males, but contributes to female libido, development of pubic and axillary hair in females, source of estrogen after menopause | gonadocorticoids (androgens) |
| hormones with effects that mimic the sympathetic nervous system activation, increases heart and metabolic rate, increases blood pressure via vasoconstriction | catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) |
| __________ is an amine hormone derived from serotonin, blood concentrations rise and fall in a daily cycle, peak levels are during the night. made by the pineal gland | melatonin |
| ___________ is a hormone released by the pancreas that's meant to raise blood glucose levels to the normal level using the liver | glucagon |
| ___________ is a hormone released by the pancreas that's meant to lower blood glucose levels to a normal level using the liver | insulin |
| a hormone that's secreted in response to the stretching of the atria in the heart. (also released by the heart) it decreases blood pressure | atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) |
| The _________ canal is the continuous muscular tube that winds through the body from the mouth to anus. it _________ food, and _________ the digested fragments through its lining into the blood. | alimentary, digests, absorbs |
| The __________ digestive organs include teeth, tongue, gallbladder, and other digestive glands. They are not a part of the GI tract. | accessory |
| __________ is taking food into the digestive tract (omnomnom) | ingestion |
| _________ moves food through the alimentary canal, including swallowing and ___________, an involuntary process of moving food down. your GI tract does not need gravity to help. | propulsion |
| ___________ _________ increases the surface area of ingested food, physically breaking it down for digestion via enzymes. This includes chewing, mixing with saliva, churning in the stomach, and ____________ in the small intestine. | mechanical breakdown, segmentation |
| _________ is a series of steps in which enzymes are secreted into the ________ of the alimentary canal to break down complex food molecules. | digestion, lumen |
| ____________ is the passage of digested end products from the lumen through the mucosal cells by active or passive transport into blood or lymph | absorption |
| ____________ is the last part of the digestion process, it eliminates indigestible substances from the body. | defecation |
| The _________ is from the abdominopelvic cavity, ___________ ___________ covers the external surfaces of most digestive organs and is continuous with the parietal peritoneum, which lines the body wall. | peritoneum, visceral peritoneum |
| ____________ organs are organs that adhere to the dorsal abdominal wall, ending up lying posterior to the peritoneum. This includes the __________, duodenum, and parts of the _______ __________. | retroperitoneal, pancreas, large intestine |
| Hepatic portal circulation collects nutrient rich venous blood from digestive viscera and delivers it to the _______. | liver |
| The innermost layer of the alimentary canal is the mucosa, and its major functions are to ________ mucus, digestive __________, and hormones. It _________ the end products of digestion into the blood, and protects against infectious disease. | secrete, enzymes, absorbs |
| The submucosa is just external to the mucosa, and made up of ______ connective tissue containing a rich supply of blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoid follicles, and nerve fibers that supply surrounding tissues. | areolar |
| The muscularis externa is responsible for ___________ and peristalsis. It usually has two layers of _________ muscle cells. | segmentation, smooth |
| The serosa layer is the ___________ layer of the GI tract, also known as the visceral __________. It's made of __________ connective tissue covered with mesothelium (a single layer of squamous epithelial cells) | outermost, peritoneum, areolar |
| The mouth is also called the oral cavity or ________ cavity | buccal |
| The walls of the mouth are lined with a thick ___________ __________ epithelium | stratified squamous |
| Epithelium on gums, hard palate, and dorsum of the tongue is slightly ____________ for extra protection | keratinized |
| The _________ ______ muscle makes up the lips | orbicularis oris |
| cheeks are formed mostly by _____________ | buccinators |
| the ________ _________ is a median fold that joins the internal aspect of each lip to the gum | labial frenulum |
| The palate is made up of the _________ and _________ palate (the second is posterior to the other) | hard, soft |
| The soft palate is a mobile fold made of _________ muscle meant to rise when we swallow | skeletal |
| the soft palate is anchored to the tongue by the __________ arches and to the wall of the oropharynx by the more posterior ____________ arches. | palatoglossal, palatopharyngeal arches |
| The tongue has both _________ and __________ muscles. (not smooth and skeletal.) | intrinsic, extrinsic |
| Intrinsic muscles in the tongue aren't attached to bone, and allow the tongue to change its _______ | shape |
| extrinsic muscles extend to the tongue from their points of origin from bones or soft palate. They alter the tongue's __________ | position |
| from the mouth, food passes posteriorly into the _____pharynx then the ____________. | oro, laryngopharynx |
| The pharynx histology is similar to the mouth, with friction-resistant __________ ___________ epithelium supplied with mucus producing glands. | stratified squamous |
| the pharynx external muscle layer consists of two ___________ muscle layers | skeletal |
| The __________ is a muscular tube about 10 inches long and is usually collapsed when it isn't involved in any food propulsion. | esophagus |
| The esophagus goes through the __________ at the esophageal hiatus to enter the abdomen | diaphragm |
| the esophagus joins with the stomach at the cardial orifice, which is surrounded by cardiac ___________. | sphincter |
| Saliva _______ the mouth, __________ food chemicals to be tasted, moistens food to help compact it, and contains the enzyme _________ that starts to digest starchy foods | cleans, dissolves, amylase |
| ___________ teeth are the teeth that start forming around the age of 6 months, and ____________ teeth are teeth that are greater in numbers and grow after the 6-month teeth | deciduous, permanent |
| the ________ _________ is a shorthand way of indicating the numbers and relative positions of the different types of teeth. | dental formula |
| The dental formula is written as: 2_, 1_, 2_ (upper jaw) ---------------------------- x 2 = ___ teeth 2_, 1_, 2_ (lower jaw) | I, C, M, 20 |
| chewing is also called _________, where the cheeks and lips hold the food between teeth, and the tongue mixes food with saliva and the teeth grinds solid food down. | mastication |
| The _______ phase of swallowing is when the upper esophageal sphincter is closed (contracted). the tongue presses against the hard palate to force food into the oropharynx. | buccal |
| The beginning of the __________ __________ phase has the tongue blocking the mouth, the soft palate and uvula rise, the larynx rises so the epiglottis blocks the trachea, and food enters the esophagus | pharyngeal-esophageal |
| The second half of the ___________ __________ phase of swallowing involves constrictor muscles of the pharynx contracting, forcing food into the esophagus. the upper esophageal sphincter contracts after the food enters. | pharyngeal-esophageal |
| The muscularis externa of the stomach has an incomplete innermost layer of _______ muscle fibrils that run _________. This allows the stomach to do many actions to ingested food. | smooth, obliquely |
| The lining epithelium of the stomach mucosa is a _______ ________ epithelium, composed entirely of mucous cells. | simple columnar |
| __________ cells are scattered among chief cells and secrete hydrochloric acid and __________ _______. They have 3 prongs that hold dense microvilli, allowing a huge surface area. | parietal, intrinsic factor |
| _________ cells occur mainly in the basal regions of the gastric glands in the stomach. they're _________ shaped and produce pepsinogen (inactive pepsin). these molecules are activated by the HCl made by parietal cells. | chief, cuboidal |
| The stomach's gastric secretion can be controlled neurally. When it's stimulated by _______ nerves, secretory activity of all glands increases. _________ nerves depresses activity. | vagus, sympathetic |
| Hormonal control over gastric secretion in the stomach is mostly from __________, which stimulates secretion of HCl (stomach) and gastrin antagonist hormones from the small intestine. | gastrin |
| The alkaline tide is when _________ is exported into the blood as acid is being pumped into the stomach. | HCO3- |
| _________ _______ are deep, permanent folds of the mucosa in the small intestine, and they force chyme to spiral through the lumen. this allows time for full nutrient absorption. | circular folds |
| ________ are fingerlike projections of small intestine mucosa, like the texture of a towel. they're bigger in the duodenum and get smaller further down. | villi |
| _________ are long cytoplasmic extensions of absorptive cells of mucosa that give that mucosal surface a fuzzy appearance called the brush border. The enzymes inside complete digestion of carbs and proteins in the small intestine | microvilli |
| The liver is composed of sesame seed-sized structural and functional units called _______ _______, they're hexagonal with plates of liver cells, aka __________. | liver lobules, hepatocytes |
| In the liver, hepatocyte plates radiate outward from a _______ vein running in the longitudial axes of the lobule. | central |
| At each of the 6 corners of a lobule is a _______ _______, and it contains a branch of the hepatic artery, the hepatic portal vein, and a bile duct. | portal triad |
| Bile is a yellow-green alkaline solution containing bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, and electrolytes. Only _____ ______ and phospholipids aid the digestive process. | bile salts |
| When bile salt is released from the bile duct from the liver, they travel through the ______ _________ and get reabsorbed at the ileum to go back through the ________ _______ vein to be re-released. | small intestine, hepatic portal |
| The gallbladder stores ______ that isn't immediately needed for digestion and concentrates it by absorbing some of its water and ions. | bile |
| The ________ produces enzymes that break down many categories of food. It has both exocrine and endocrine parts. | pancreas |
| The pancreas produces it's juice into the __________, proteases are released in inactive forms to be activated there. | duodenum |
| When cholecystokinin is released, pancreatic juice is secreted within the pancreas and the ___________ sphincter eventually relaxes, allowing bile and pancreatic juice to enter the duodenum. | hepatopancreatic |
| The ________ intestine harvests vitamins made by gut bacteria and reclaims most remaining water and some electrolytes. It's main function is to force fecal material towards the anus and eliminate it from the body | large |
| During digestion, carbohydrates turn into __________. | monosaccharides |
| during digestion, proteins turn into __________. | amino acid monomers |
| Lipids/fats turn into ________ after digestion. | chylomicron |
| Nucleic acids turn into _____ ____, pentose sugars, and phosphate ions. | nitrogenous bases |
| A pancreatic enzyme that helps digest proteins is | protease |
| a pancreatic enzyme that helps digest starch | amylase |
| pancreatic enzyme that helps digest fats | lipase |
| pancreatic enzyme that helps digest nucleic acids | nucleases |
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