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Pathophysiology
Nightingale Weeks 1-8
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Living cells are divided into two groups | eukaryotes and prokaryotes |
| What are the characteristics of eukaryotes? | 1) Larger and have more extensive intracellular anatomy and organization. 2) Has a characteristic set of membrane-bound intracellular compartments called organelles, that includes a well-defined nucleus. 3)Has no counterpart in bacterial cells |
| What are the characteristics of prokaryotes? | 1) Contains no organelles 2)Includes cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), bacteria and rickettsiae 3)Their nuclear material is not encased by a nuclear membrane 4)lack of distinct nucleus |
| Eukaryotes are: | 1) Cells of higher animals and plants 2) Single celled organisms such as fungi, protozoa, and most algae |
| What is the chemical composition and biochemical activity in eukaryotes? | 1) Has a class of proteins called histones, that bind to DNA and are involved in supercoiling of DNA |
| What is the chemical composition and biochemical activity in prokaryotes | 1)Nuclei carry genetic information in a single circular chromosome and they lack histones |
| What is differentiation also known as maturation? | When cells eventually perform one kind of function. Cels perform a highly developed function |
| Cell Function: Movement | Muscle cells that generate forces that produce motion. Ex. Muscles that attach to bones produce limb movement and muscles in the colon or stomach move or empty contents when they contract. |
| Cell Function: Conductivity | Response to a stimulus is manifested by a wave of excitation, an electrical potential that passes along the surface of the cell to reach other parts. Ex. Nerve cell function |
| Cell Function: Metabolic absorption | All cells can take in and use nutrients and other substances from their surroundings |
| Cell Function: Secretion | Mucous gland cells can synthesize new substances from substances the absorb and then secrete the new substances to serve, as needed, elsewhere |
| Cell Function: Excretion | Cells rid themselves of waste products resulting from the metabolic break down of nutrients. Membrane-bound sacs (lysosomes) within cells contain enzymes that break down, or digest, large molecules, turning them into waste prod. |
| Cell Function: Respiration | Cells absorb oxygen, which is used to transform nutrients into energy in the form of ATP. Ex. Cellular respiration, or oxidation, occurs in organelles called mitochondria |
| Cell Function: Reproduction | Tissue growth occurs as cells enlarge and reproduce themselves. Even without growth, tissue maintenance requires that new cells be produced to replace cells that are lost normally through cellular death. Not all cells are capable of continuous division |
| Cell Function: Communication | It is vital for cells to survive as a society of cells. Appropriate communication allows the maintenance of a dynamic steady state |
| Plasma membrane or plasmalemma | outer membrane of a cell |
| Cytoplasm | Fluid filled inside a cell |
| Organelles | "organs" of a cell that are membrane bound intracellular |
| Nucleus | surrounded by the cytoplasm and located in the center of the cell. It is the largest membrane-bound organelle |
| Nuclear envelope is composed of | Two pliable membranes |
| Nuclear Pores are | located on the outside of the nucleus envelope seen as pits, which allow chemical messages to exit and enter the nucleus. |
| Nucleolus | small dense structure composed largely of RNA, most of the cellular DNA, DNA binding proteins that regulate activity. Most of the processing of RNA occurs here |
| What happens when proteins called histones attach to DNA | Since the DNA chain in eukaryotic cells is so long it is easily broken.. Therefore, the histones that bind DNA cause DNA to fold into chromosomes which decreases the risk of breakage and is essential for cell division in eukaryotes |
| Primary Functions of the nucleus | 1) Cell division and control of genetic information 2)Replication and repair of DNA 3) Transcription of the info in DNA |
| Primary Functions of the nucleus (continued) | 4)Genetic info is transcribed into RNA, which is then processed into messenger, transport, and ribosomal RNAs and introduced into cytoplasm , where it directs cellular activities. |
| Cytoplasm | aqueous solution called cytosol that fills the cytoplasmic matrix |
| Cytoplasmic matrix | space between the nuclear envelope and the plasma membrane |
| Cytosol is | 1) Represents about half the volume of a eukaryotic cell 2) Crowded with ribosomes making proteins 3) Contains thousands of enzymes involved in metabolism 4) Storage unit for fat, carbs, and secretory vesicles |
| What are the functions of cytosol? | 1)Synthesis of proteins and hormones & their transport out of the cell, isolation & elimination of waste products from the cell, performance processes, breakdown, disposal of cellular debris, foreign proteins and maintenance of cell structure & motility |
| Principal Cytoplasmic Organelles: Ribosomes | Ribonucleic acid (RNA)- protein complexes (nucleoproteins) synthesized in nucleolus and secreted into cytoplasm. Provide sites for cellular protein synthesis. |
| Principal Cytoplasmic Organelles: Endoplasmic Reticulum | Network of tubular channels ( cisternae) that extend throughout outer nuclear membrane. Specializes in synthesis, folding, and transport of protein and lipid components of most organelles. Senses cellular stress |
| Principal Cytoplasmic Organelles: Golgi complex | Network of smooth membranes and vesicles located near nucleus. Processes and packages proteins onto secretory vesicles that break away from the complex and migrate to various intracellular and extracellular destinations, including plasma membrane |
| Clathrin | Vesicles that have coats made up of mostly proteins |
| Golgi complex | Proteins bind to the cytoskeleton, generating tension that helps organelle function and keep its stretched shape intact. The complex is a refining plant and directs traffic |
| Principal Cytoplasmic Organelles Lysosomes | Sac-like structures that contain enzymes for digesting most cellular substances to their basic form, such as amino acids, fatty acids, and carbs (sugars). Cell injury leads to release of lysosomal enzymes that cause self destruction. |
| Principal Cytoplasmic Organelles Function of Lysosomes | Signaling hubs of a sophisticated network for cellular adaptation |
| Principal Cytoplasmic Organelles Peroxisomes | Contain several oxidative enzymes that produce hydrogen peroxide; reactions detoxify various wastes |
| Principal Cytoplasmic Organelles: Mitochondria | "Powerhouse" Metabolizes cellular energy. Enzymes of the respiratory chain (electron-transport chain), found in inner membrane, generates ATP. Has a role in osmotic regulation, pH control, calcium homeostasis, and cell signaling |
| Principal Cytoplasmic Organelles: Cytoskeleton | "Bone and muscle" of cell. Contains protein filaments ( microtubules and actin filaments known as microfilaments), forms cell extensions (microvilli, cilia, flagella). |
| Cytoskeleton | Forms a brings from one cell junction to another strengthening and supporting the sheet of epithelium |
| Cell polarity | the direction of cellular transport, maintains normal cell and tissue structure for numerous functions and becomes altered with diseases. |
| What are the functions of the plasma membrane? | 1) Plays a role in cell to cell recognition 2) Mobility and the maintenance of cellular shape |
| Plasma Membrane Structure | Thicker than membranes of intracellular organelles, containment of cellular organelles, maintenance of relationship with cytoskeleton, endoplasmic reticulum, and other organelles. Maintenance of ion channels |
| Plasma Membrane Protection | Barrier to toxic molecules and macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides). Barrier to foreign organisms and cells |
| Plasma Membrane Activation of cell | Hormones (regulation of cellular activity), Mitogens (cell division), Antigens (antibody), Growth factors (proliferation and differentiation) |
| Plasma membrane: Storage | Storage site for many receptors, transport (sodium pump), diffusion and exchange diffu,sion, endocytosis (pinocytosis, phagocytosis), exocytosis (secretion), active transport |
| Plasma Membrane: Cell to Cell Interaction | Communication, anchors (integrins), and attachment at junctional complexes, symbiotic nutritive relationships, release of enzymes and antibodies to extracellular environment, relationships with extracellular matrix. |
| Lipid bilayer | Composed of two apposing leaflets and proteins that span the bilayer or interact with the lipids on either side of the two leaflets |
| Main components of plasma membrane | lipids and proteins |
| What is chemically combines with lipids? | Carbohydrates are mainly associated with plasma membranes and are chemically combined with lipids forming glycolipids and with proteins, forming glycoproteins |
| Lipids are | 1)Considered polar, or amphipathic (part is hydrophobic uncharged, or water hating). Another part hydrophilic (charged, or water loving). 2) Bilayer serves as a barrier to the diffusion of water and hydrophilic substances, lipid soluble molecules O2, CO |
| Major component of the plasma membrane | The bilayer of lipid molecules- glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and sterols (cholesterol) |
| Most abundant lipids | phospholipids |
| Phospholipids | A phosphate-containing hydrophilic head connected to a hydrophobic tail. They form self-sealing lipid bilayers. |
| Proteins | Performs most of the plasma membrane's tasks. Made from a chain of amino acids (polypeptides). 20 types of amino acids in proteins |
| Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) | Methods used to diversify the limited numbers of proteins generated. They alter the activity and functions of proteins |
| Proteomics | Set of proteins expressed by a genome from synthesis, translocation, and modification, and the analysis of the roles of proteomes |
| Transmembrane proteins | extend across the bilayer and exposed to an aqueous environment on both sides of the membrane |
| Proteins associated with the lipid bilayer by | Proteins located in the cytosol and associated with the cytosolic half of the lipid bilayer by a helix exposed on the surface of the protein |
| Proteins associated with the lipid bilayer by | If the proteins are outside the bilayer, on one side or the other, and attached to the membrane by one or more covalently attached lipid groups |
| Proteins associated with the lipid bilayer by | Proteins bound indirectly to one or the other bilayer membrane face and held in place by their interactions with other proteins |
| Cells are linked by three different means | 1) cell adhesion molecules in the cell's plasma membrane, 2) the extracellular matrix (ECM), 3) specialized cell junctions |
| Cell adhesion molecules are | cell surface proteins that bind the cell to an adjacent cell and to components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) |
| What are the protein families that make up cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) | interns, the cadherins, the selections, and the immunoglobulin superfamily CAMs. |
| Integrins | receptors within the ECM and regulate cell-ECM interactions with collagen |
| Cadherins | are calcium -dependent glycoproteins throughout tissue, for example, epithelial |
| Selectins | are proteins that bind some carbohydrates, for example, muffins |
| Extracellular matrix (ECM) | intricate meshwork of fibrous proteins embedded in a watery, gel-like substance composed of complex carbohydrates. Similar to glue; provides a pathway for diffusion of nutrients, wastes, and other water soluble substances between the blood and tissue cell |
| Basement membrane (BM) or basal lamina | Sheet of matrix is thin, tough, and flexible; lies beneath epithelial cells; occurs between two cell sheets and surrounds individual muscle cells, fat cells, and Schwann cells (which wrap around peripheral nerve cell axons) |
| Large molecules or macromolecules interwoven within the matrix | Fibrous structural proteins, including collagen and elastin, adhesive glycoproteins, such as fibronectin and proteoglycans and hyaluronic acid |
| Collagen | cable like fibers or sheets that provide tensile strength or resistance to longitudinal stress. |
| Elastin | rubber like protein fiber most abundant tissues that must be capable of stretching and recoiling found in lungs |
| Fibronectin | glycoprotein, promotes cell adhesion and cell anchorage. Allows cancer cells to ravel, or metastasize, to other parts of the body |
| Fiberblasts (fiber formers) | secrete extracellular matrix. The matrix and the cells within it are known as connective tissue, because they interconnect cells to form tissues and organs |
Created by:
NurseT17
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