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Psychological development
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Hereditary factors
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psych ch2
i hate schoooooooool
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Psychological development | An individual’s cognitive, emotional and social growth over time. |
| Hereditary factors | (aka nature) Factors that influence development, which are genetically passed down from biological parents to their children. |
| Environmental factors | (aka nurture) Factors from an individual’s physical or social surroundings that influence development. |
| Genetic predisposition | An increased likelihood to develop certain traits, including diseases, if certain conditions are met |
| Biological factors | Genetic and/or physiologically based factors. |
| Psychological factors | Factors relating to a person’s mind, thoughts or feelings. |
| Social factors | Factors relating to a person’s relationship or external environment. |
| Mental wellbeing | An individual’s current psychological state, involving their ability to think, process information, and regulate emotions |
| Emotional development | The continuous, life-long development of skills that allow individuals to control, express, and recognise emotions in an appropriate way. |
| Attachment | The emotional bond between an infant and their primary caregiver |
| Primary caregiver | -the adult/s who predominantly look after the child. |
| Contact comfort | The positive effects experienced by infants or young animals when in close, physical contact with their caregiver |
| Cognitive development | The development of mental processes such as sophisticated thinking, problem solving and reasoning over time. |
| Depth perception | The visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and the distance of an object. |
| Concrete thinking | A literal form of thinking based on tangible concepts |
| Symbolic thinking | A more sophisticated type of thinking based on the ability to represent abstract concepts |
| Assimilation | The process of taking in new information and fitting it into an existing mental idea (Schema). |
| Accommodation | Changing an existing mental idea in order to fit new information |
| Object permanence | Learning that a person/object still exists even if you can’t see them. |
| Goal-directed behaviour | Doing things with a predetermined purpose. |
| Ego-centrism | Being unable to see things from someone else’s perspective. |
| Animism | Believing that all objects have some kind of consciousness |
| Centration | Only focusing on one quality or feature of an object at a time. |
| Conservation | Understanding that an object does not change its volume, mass or area, even if its shape or appearance changes. |
| Classification | Ability to organise information into categories based on common features |
| Abstract thinking | Considering concepts that are not concrete or tangible (able to be touched). |
| Logic | The ability to objectively consider a problem or scenario from multiple pathways. |
| Generalisability | Ability for research to be applied to other groups/populations. |
| Validity | The extent to which the investigation measures what it intends to measure |
| Social development | The development of certain skills, attitudes, relationships and behaviours that enable an individual to interact with others |
| Psychosocial crisis | A point of tension between an individual’s capabilities and the desire to meet the expectations of society, |
| Observational learning | Learning that occurs when watching the actions of someone else, and the consequences that follow. |
| Model | The individual being observed. |
| Reinforcement | A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Reinforcement can be positive or negative. |
| Sensitive period | Period of development in which it is optimal to learn a specific function or skill. |
| Critical period | Narrow and rigid period of development in which a specific function or skill must be learnt. |
| Hypothesis | A testable statement about the relationship between variables or a proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon. -population -iv -dv -direction |
| Optimal | The most effective method or strategy in a given situation. |
| Synaptic plasticity | Process where as we grow, our brain creates connections so that we can learn. |
| ethics in psych | set of moral principles that guide research to ensure the safety, dignity, and rights of participants. -important for protecting from harm and ensuring that studies are conducted responsibly. |
| 5 ethical considerations | -integrity -beneficence -justice -non-maleficence -respect for human beings |
| justice | -participants should be selected fairly -benefits of the research should be distributed equally across society |
| integrity | -researchers must be honest and transparent with their research -results shouldn’t be altered even if they’re not desirable. |
| beneficence | -research should maximise benefits -minimise potential harm to participants |
| non-maleficence | -avoid causing harm to participants -any potential harm should be justified by the benefits |
| respect for human beings | -participants rights, privacy and autonomy should be respected at all times. |
| 7 ethical guidelines | -confidentiality -informed consent -voluntary participation -withdrawal rights -protection and security of participants info -use of deception -debriefing civwpud |
| protection and security of participants info | -must ensure that personal info is protected from misuse, interference, loss, unauthorised access, modification and disclosure. |
| confidentiality | -ensure that private info is not disclosed for any purpose other than that of which it is given to them. eg. personal data or test results cannot be revealed unless permission has been given. |
| voluntary participation | participants must elect to take part in research -they cant be coerced. |
| withdrawal rights | participants have the right to leave the experiment at any time - including withdrawing results after the study has been finished. |
| informed consent | participants must sign a form that outlines the: -purpose -demands -methods -risks -potential benefits |
| use of deception | participants are deliberately misleading or not fully informed about the aim or some other aspect of the research. -sometimes necessary to avoid bias in results. -for the research to be ethical a debriefing must be done at the end of the research. |
| debriefing | -must be done at the end of every research -revealing the true purpose of the study -provides opportunities for questioning and councelling. |
| what is nature vs nurture debate | -explores whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) plays a bigger role in shaping psychological development. -modern research suggests that both INTERACT to influence behaviour and traits. |
| examples of nature influencing development | -intelligence -personality traits -genetic disorders |
| examples of nurture influencing development | -language -beliefs -social behaviours -education -culture |
| how do nature and nurture interact | -genetics provide the foundation for development (like blueprint or plan) -environmental factors determine to what extent they are expressed. eg. a person may inherit high intelligence but will need education (school) to reach their full potential. |
| biopsychosocial model | -a holistic framework for understanding the human experience in terms of the influence of biological, psychological and social factors. |
| how does the biopsychosocial model explain mental well-being? | -mental well-being depends on the balance between bioligical, psychological and social influences. -when ONE OR MORE of these factors is negatively affected, it can lead to mental health issues |
| piaget and what is his theory | jean piaget was a swiss psychologist who studied cognitive development in children. his theory consisted of 4 stages. |
| piagets theory of cognitive developments 4 stages | -sensorimotor stage (0-2) -pre operational stage (2-7) -concrete operational stage (7-11) -formal operational stage (12+) |
| sensorimotor stage (0-2) | infants explore the world through senses and actions; object permanence develops. |
| pre operational stage (2-7) | children use symbols and language but lack logical reasoning; egocentrism is common |
| concrete operational stage (7-11) | children develop logical thinking about concrete events but struggle with abstract concepts |
| formal operational stage (12+) | adolescents and adults develop abstract and hypothetical reasoning abilities. |
| how do parents influence social development | -parents influence social development through modelling behaviours, reinforcing social norms and guiding interactions with others. they help children learn essential social skills such as communication, empathy, and cooperation etc. |
| what is erikson’s psychosocial theory | eriksons proposed a theory of psychological development with eight stages, each defined by a psychological conflict that must be resolved. |
| 8 stages of eriksons psychosocial theory | -trustVSmistrust(0-1) -autonomyVSshame and doubt(1-3) -initiativeVSguilt(3-6) -industryVSinferiority(6-12) -identityVSrole confusion(12-18) -intimacyVSisolation(yng adulthood) -generativityVS stagnation(mid adulthood) -integrityVSdespair (old) |
| trust vs mistrust (infant) | -infants are completely dependent on their caregivers —if its needs are met trust will develop - trusting relationships in adulthood —if its needs arent met - paranoia+fear and unsafe relationships in adulthood |
| autonomy vs shame and doubt (toddler) | -toddlers experience enhanced lvl of independence while learning abt the world through exploring -toddlers are encouraged to make choices independently -todlers encouraged=independent in adulthood -toddlers doubted/denied=overly dependent in adulthood |
| initiative vs guilt (pre-schooler) | -children begin to actively interact with others -kids independent plans are encouraged -when encouraged=feel that they’re listened to+respected=self confidence+independent thought -discouraged=self doubt, allowing others to be in control in relationsh |
| industry vs inferiority (primary school age) | -compare their performance to others -proud of performances -if proud/encouragement=sense of industry (they are competent) -if not proud/not encouraged=inferiority+lack sense of capability to form well |
| identity vs role confusion (adolescent) | -navigating social world+seek clarity on who they are,their capabilities and their role in world -strong belief of self -if clear=strong sense of identity/belief -if not clear=weak sense of self, remaining uncertain |
| intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood) | -attempting to establish social relations(mostly romantic) -can form strong relationships -if able=can experience intimacy in relationships -if unable=feeling isolated+lonely, avoiding relationships -i |
| generativity vs stagnation (middle age) | -evaluating whether their actions contributed to the next gen -contributed to others’ well-beings -yes=sense of purposefulness/generativity -no=stagnation- may disconnect from society+can lead to ‘mid life crisis’ |
| integrity vs despair (old age) | -reflecting on life -reflection on life leads to fulfilment or regret -achieved goals=integrity-looking back with acceptance and pride -unachieved goals=despair- regrets and lack of pride + also mb sense of bitterness |
| what was bandura’s bobo doll experiment | theory that we can learn by observing others (known as observational learning) -therefore out own social development is impacted by the actions of those around us. |
| what did the children do in bandura’s bobo doll experiment | -children who saw the aggressive model were more likely to imitate the violent behaviour -vise versa |
| maturation in psych | -genetically programmed process of growth and development that occurs in a predictable sequence |
| principle of readiness | -certain physical and mental processes cannot occur until the necessary structures are sufficiently mature. eg. brain, muscles, nervous system. -no amount of practice will make a child perform a task before they’re ready |
| neuroplasticity | -brains ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections in response to new learning, experiences and injury -the brain is most plastic (malleable) when you are a child but continues to decrease through life. |
| eg of critical period | if a baby is not exposed to sunlight in the first few days, the sensory neurons in the retina may not be able to develop properly, leading to permanent blindness |
| eg of sensitive period | language acquisition is best to learn before the age of 7 with a gradually decline until about the age of 12. after this period, learning a new language becomes significantly harder but not impossible. |
| who was genie and why is her case important? | -a girl who was isolated and deprived of language exposure until 13. -despite intensive therapy she never fully developed normal speech suggesting there may be a critical period for some aspects of language acquisition. |
| secure attachment | -able to form healthy and strong emotional bonds and relationships -independent and self-sufficient -high levels of self-esteem and resilience |
| insecure-avoidant attachment | -may find it difficult to form strong bonds and be intimate with others -tends to ignore or dismiss their own emotions -avoids depending on others and asking for help |
| insecure-anxious attachment | -may heavily depend on others for support -seeks others to ‘complete them’ |
| lifespan development | -occur over time from birth into old age -relatively permanent changes |
| who made the attachment theory | john bowlby |
| between subjects design | is when participants are randomly allocated to either the control or the experimental condition. |
| strengths of between subjects design | -most time efficient bc both groups can be tested at same time without pre testing -lower rate of participant withdrawal -better control of participant knowledge |
| limitations of between subjects design | -more participants are needed -less control over extraneous variables |
| within subjects design | involves all participants in the sample completing both the experimental and control conditions |
| within subjects design strengths | -no extraneous variable of participants between groups -fewer participants needed |
| within subjects design limitations | -less control over participant knowledge -it is more time consuming -higher rate of participant withdrawal |
| mixed design | involves combination of between subject and within subject |
| mixed design limitation | -high participant withdrawal -less control over participant knowledge -less control over differences in participant variable groups |
| mixed design strength | -difference in participant variables between groups r controlled with within subject stuff -can test the effect of multiple independent variables -cost and time effective |
| case study | investigation of particular activity, behaviour, event or problem that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes real world complexities |
| case study strengths | -useful when limited nom of participants -can be used to study experiences which are unethical or impossible to conduct as an experiment -provides rich qualitative data -act as basis for further research |
| case study limitations | -not representative of population so it cannot be generalised to the population- low external validity bc its usually on one person or small group -researcher bias may influence -may not be repeatable -time consuming usually |
| classification and identification | -arranging phenomena, objects or events into manageable sets -then recognising phenomena as belonging to a particular set or being part of a new or unique |
| classification and identifications strengths | -classifications allows for narrowed focus on research -people identified as having similar classification can feel a sense of belonging and support -can allow for efficiency when processing lots of info -can help make predictions and inferences |
| classifications and identifications limitations | -labelling through identification can lead to stereotyping, prejudice or discrimination -classification may be based on subjective criteria -large amounts of info are required to make classifications |
| correlational study | planned observation and recording of events and behaviours that have not been manipulated/controlled to understand the relationships or associations existing between variables, identify which factors may be of greater importance, and make predictions |
| correlational study strengths | -measured by statistical tests to determine correlation coefficients -correlation coefficients range from -1.00 (strongest possible neg relationship) to +1.00 (the strongest possible pos relationship), and a zero correlation has a pearson’s r value of 0 |
| correlational study strengths cont. | - Determines relationship strength/direction - Useful for initial research, ethical/practical cases - Observes natural behavior - Uses secondary data - Predicts variable values - Ensures validity - No need for extra controls. |
| correlational study limitations | -does not equal or imply causation-even if a strong relationship is determined-one variable doesnt cause change other -relationship is bi-directional- cant determine which variable has more influence -lots of data required -extraneous var not controled |
| fieldwork/observation | -fieldwork collects data by observing/interacting in real settings -uses direct observation, sampling, and participant observation -methods include interviews, questionnaires, focus groups, and yarning circles |
| fieldwork/observation strengths | -collects sensitive data -gathers large quantitative data quickly -anonymity reduces bias -provides rich qualitative responses -reflects real-life behaviour -useful when experiments aren't possible -reveals unexpected insights |
| fieldwork/observation limitations | -subjective, prone to researcher bias -social desirability affects responses -responses may be inaccurate -qualitative data is hard to summarize -time-consuming methods -minimal control over variables -ethical concerns on consent |
| literature review | analyses secondary data to evaluate existing knowledge, provide background, and identify research gaps. It does not present new research but offers a critical overview. |
| literature review strengths | -determines existing knowledge and foundation. -introduces context for primary research. -identifies experts in the field. -finds gaps for future research. -evaluates successful and unsuccessful methodologies. |
| literature review limitations | -may miss key studies if search is too narrow. -can be biased due to selection bias. -lacks depth in individual study analysis. -does not assess original research validity. -relies only on secondary data. |
| modelling and simulation | -modelling creates physical or conceptual models -simulation replicates system behavior -they help study complex or unethical-to-test psychological concepts |
| modelling and stimulation strengths | -visualises unobservable events. -runs multiple trials quickly. -safely tests risky or unethical experiments. -predicts future events. -tests products before creation. |
| modelling and siimulation limitations | -requires large, valid data. -needs precise statistical analysis. -theories may not work as models. -simulations may not reflect real behavior. -can be costly. |
| control group | participants who are not exposed to the iv |
| experimental group | participants exposed to the iv |
| sample | the participants selected from the population who participate in the investigation |
| random allocation | diving the sample into groups in a way that each participant has an equal chance to be placed into the control group or the experimental group |
| who made psychosocial development theory | eriksons |
| fieldwork/observation limitations | -subjective, prone to researcher bias -social desirability affects responses -responses may be inaccurate -qualitative data is hard to summarize -time-consuming methods -minimal control over variables -ethical concerns on consent |
| literature review | analyses secondary data to evaluate existing knowledge, provide background, and identify research gaps. It does not present new research but offers a critical overview. |
| literature review strengths | -determines existing knowledge and foundation. -introduces context for primary research. -identifies experts in the field. -finds gaps for future research. -evaluates successful and unsuccessful methodologies. |
| literature review limitations | -may miss key studies if search is too narrow. -can be biased due to selection bias. -lacks depth in individual study analysis. -does not assess original research validity. -relies only on secondary data. |
| modelling and simulation | -modelling creates physical or conceptual models -simulation replicates system behavior -they help study complex or unethical-to-test psychological concepts |
| modelling and stimulation strengths | -visualises unobservable events. -runs multiple trials quickly. -safely tests risky or unethical experiments. -predicts future events. -tests products before creation. |
| modelling and stimulation limitations | -requires large, valid data. -needs precise statistical analysis. -theories may not work as models. -simulations may not reflect real behavior. -can be costly. |
| product, process and system development | product, process and system development in psychological research involves the design of an artefact, a process or a system to meet a human need |
| control group | participants who are not exposed to the iv |
| experimental group | participants exposed to the iv |
| sample | the participants selected from the population who participate in the investigation |
| random allocation | diving the sample into groups in a way that each participant has an equal chance to be placed into the control group or the experimental group |
| who made psychosocial development theory | eriksons |
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