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Adolescence Exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Peer | Another youth of roughly the same age Short interactions, minimal commitment So for us: other students, similar age- they don't have to have real interactions with you, just someone you know with similar age and status |
| Friend | peer with whom the youth has a close relationship Regular, sustained interactions, reciprocal liking and respect They usually serve as each others emotional support |
| Dyads | Interactions between pairs of individuals Dy means two: a pair of people |
| Groups | Cliques, teams, and crowds with norms, rules, and hierarchies More than two people |
| Cliques | small groups of people (2-12) of the same sex+age who are defined by common activity: a clique of soccer players. |
| special functions of cliques | These groups have special functions: allow teens to form close bonds and socialize. They learn social skills- how to become a good friend and interact with people |
| Crowds | groups that are based on reputations or stereotypes: a cluster of people with a reputation: nerds, jocks, theater kids, etc. The people in the crowd may not be friends, but they all get lumped together based on their reputation. |
| special functions of crowds | Usually teens fit into two or three crowds. This functions as a sense of identity for the teen, like an attitudinal+behavioral guide. Around 17% of teenagers in high school don't fit into any crowds |
| How do peer relationships differ from those with adults? | Briefer, freer, more equal. don't form a long term relationship but no one has authority over anyone, whereas parents have authority. |
| special functions of peers | You learn give and take (reciprocity, perspective taking) Offer opportunities for new types of interpersonal exploration. You learn about other people's different identities and your identity Offer youths a cultural community of their own |
| Developmental patterns of peers interactions: Age 3-4 | equally likely to choose same-gender or other-gender companions for play This is when peer-relationship development starts. They don't care about the gender of the other kid |
| Developmental patterns of peers interactions: Up to age 7 | willing to play with a peer of the other gender |
| Developmental patterns of peers interactions: School years | choose playmates of the same gender and exclude children of the other gender different types of play: boys will usually play competition based games, girls will play artistic-type games. Girls usually engage in a lot more conversation than boys |
| Developmental patterns of peers interactions: Adolescence | Larger portion of significant peers are of the opposite sex Evident in mixed-sex cliques: this makes sense because at ages 13,14,15,16, they're more interested in romantic relationships |
| how peers take on importance in adolescence | Adolescents spend most of their waking hours with peers than with parents and other adults Pattern particularly marked in Western cultures: 1/3rd of day spent with parents, 2/3rd spent with peers |
| how peers take on importance in adolescence: socialization | When with peers, usually engaged in recreation and conversation Minimal supervision by adults They mostly just talk. They are free to do what they want and say what they want |
| opposite-sex peers | time with opposite-sex peers really takes off as they age. Interactions with same-sex peers usually stay about the same, with a small increase from 12-16. Unsupervised time after school linked to delinquent teen behaviors: drugs, risks, sex |
| Peers influence/ Social influence | changes in preferences or behavior that an individual or group causes in another intentionally or unintentionally |
| peer functions | (1) align behavior within a group: adapt to social environment (2) contribute to social learning (3) promotes transmission of cultural norms: their cultural norms might be different because they are in highschool |
| Examples of peer influence in teens’ daily life? | Style of interpersonal behavior, selection of friends, and choice of fashion and entertainment, risk-taking behaviors (e.g., use of alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drugs) |
| Conformity in adolescence | Importance of peer pressure and crowd membership Adolescent conformity pressure usually occurs through normative regulation |
| Normative regulation | you can influence someone's behavior JUST by social modeling |
| Crowd membership | people in groups think and behave differently than they do as individuals |
| Adolescence and (most common) risk-taking behaviors | Motor vehicle crashes are the 2nd leading cause of death for teens ages 16–19 are 3X more likely to be in a fatal crash 50% of 9-12th gr. report ever using weed; 67% tried alcohol Half of new STDs reported each year are among ages 15 to 24 |
| Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Ad Health) on social influence and its effects on risk taking | having more close friends reporting marijuana and alcohol use is related to self use; More peers within the same grade reporting use is also related to likelihood of self-use Social conformity: they just do what their friends are doing |
| social overestimation | Adolescents often overestimate the frequency of substance and alcohol use in their same-grade peers and friends. Overestimation is related to frequency of self-use You can change behavior by changing the teens perception. |
| Social influence task (red light risk) | Teens asked to rate risk on crossing street on red light, then viewed others ratings, then rated again. |
| Social influence task (red light risk): Findings | Children ages 8-11 had greater changes in second responses than all other age groups ages 12-14 had greater changes in their second responses after viewing other teenagers’ ratings compared to after viewing adults’ ratings. |
| Social influence task (red light risk): 12-14 y/o significance | Only group who changed answers more when they saw a teens rating was 12-14 year olds (tells you something about social conformity and how important it is during that developmental phase), they care more for peer info than parent/adult info |
| what is informational conformity | Changing because you want the most accurate information: you might follow the crowd when you feel uncertain or lack information on what to do |
| Informational conformity in adolescence | In middle and late adolescence, teenagers turn to those they see as experts on a given area of knowledge (college, sex, career). However, teenagers are mostly likely to turn to peer if they have social problems (peers can give more accurate advice) |
| T/F: As adolescents develop increasing autonomy, they will grow more confident in their ability to make choices and be more resistant to pressures from others | True |
| Study: Stoplight game | Teens could either stop at a yellow light or run through it (risk of crash) Their goal is to make it to end asap, faster=money, but crash slows you down driving alone vs. with a peer Sometimes close friend or peer |
| Stoplight game findings | Adolescents took more risks (ran more yellows) in the peer presence condition than other age groups. when teens are w/peer, neural regions supporting reward valuation, show greater activation compared to when the adolescent is alone |
| ventral striatum | reward learning+processing neural region (region activated in teens in stoplight game w/a peer present) |
| orbitofrontal cortex | neural region linked to how you value rewards and anticipate outcomes (region activated in teens in stoplight game w/a peer present) |
| Modeling Behavior | Children and adolescents learn a great deal about how to behave simply by observing the actions of their peers Older children learn about social rules by watching their peers Youths are more likely to model behaviors after those who are like them |
| Peers as Socializers: Reinforcing and Punishing Behavior | Peers tell adolescents how to behave and reinforce them with praise and positive reactions for behaviors they approve of or punish them with criticism and negative reactions for behaviors they dislike |
| how does Reinforcing and Punishing Behavior change as adolescents age? | Peers are increasingly likely to reinforce each other as they get older and pressure each other to follow the rules of the group . Peer pressure to engage in antisocial behaviors is well documented. |
| Anti-social youth | groups that do delinquent behaviors together |
| Deviant peer contagion | This means that when you are associated with other deviant peers who are delinquent, you are also more likely to do delinquent behaviors because of the reinforcement and punishment behaviors of the group. |
| peer-led strategies/peer-assisted learning | where a peer influences you into doing something to change your behavior (Think of the study about a popular girl influencing peers to work out more without even telling them explicitly: The PLAN-A Project) |
| Social comparison | process by which people evaluate their own abilities, values, and other qualities by comparing themselves with others, usually their peers - source of comparison to provide realistic appraisals of one’s abilities |
| Upward Social comparison | comparing with someone who is better than you at something. Can make you feel worse but can also motivate you to work harder -Too much upward social comparison is related to low self-esteem, depressive symptoms |
| Downward Social comparison | comparing with someone who is worse than you at something. Can make you feel better about yourself, but it doesn't motivate you to do better or change your behavior - too much dsc (especially in young children) is related to narcissistic behaviors |
| Developmental changes in social comparison: childhood | Children usually compare themselves with their older selfs. They compare back in time, to their younger selves, to show themselves their mastery. |
| Developmental changes in social comparison: adolescence | Usually once they hit adolescence, they start comparing to their peers, so their self-esteem takes a hit So their reference changes. They go from comparing to self to comparing to peers. |
| Crowds conceptualized in 2 dimensions | Involvement in peer culture (x axis) Involvement in adult institutions (y axis) |
| Involvement in peer culture (x axis) | Refers to the extent to which teens are affiliated with peers and how much they engage in peer culture How much they engage in informal activities that are not set up by adults at school, (anything made by a peer and not by an adult) |
| Involvement in adult institutions (y axis) | Refers to how much teens will spend time doing things that are valued and controlled by adults Like school activities, extracurricular activities, etc. |
| True or false: teens are often grouped into more than 1 crowd | true |
| true or false: Age, Sex, and ethnic segregation is consistently found in cliques | True. Usually they are within 1 year of age to each other Usually dominated by same-sex individuals Ethnically similar Provide a chance to socialize and form close relationships |
| Clique members | most frequent position in networks, (1 little less than half of teens are clique members). These are people who don't have friends outside of their own group. High stability (likely to stay in cliques) |
| Liaisons | not a minority group in high school. common. Individuals who interact with two or more teens who are members of cliques but are not a member of a clique themselves. High stability |
| Isolates | also not a minority in high schools. common. individuals who have few or no links to other people in the network. High stability |
| Gender differences in cliques | Girls usually are more likely to be a part of a clique (likely to have friends, compared to boys) |
| T or F: crowds offer teens directions on self-identity and behavior | True |
| Friendship involves: | 1) A dyadic relationship (2 people) 2) A reciprocated emotional bond 3) Voluntary |
| Adolescent friendship Functions | social support+intimacy, period where supportive social figures shift from parents to peers (provide age appropriate advice) Buffer against maladjustment - Usually teens with at least 1 best friend tend to be more well adjusted into young adulthood |
| Stability of Adolescent Friendships- How long do teens stay friends with the friends that they make? | low stability - usually friendships do not last long more stable in well-adjusted adolescents Same-sex friendship more stable than opposite-sex friendships Only 1/2 of reciprocated best friendships remain the same between the start-end of a school yr |
| probability of friendships lasting through grade levels | The probability that a friendship in 7th grade survives through the 12th grade is zero Most friendships end between the 7th and 8th grade. Most are not stable and will disintegrate But technology helps people stay connected and this research is old |
| factors effecting whether adolescents become friends | Commonalities in interests 3 domains: 1. Orientation toward school 2. Orientation toward teen culture 3. Involvement in antisocial activities |
| factors effecting whether adolescents become friends: 1. Orientation toward school | Usually similar: they have similar school achievements, educational plans, usually study together (seen more often in white+asian teens), usually same classes, same values toward school |
| factors effecting whether adolescents become friends: 2. Orientation toward teen culture | Music, clothing, makeup, things they express themselves with. Will usually pick friends who are into the same things as you |
| factors effecting whether adolescents become friends: 3. Involvement in antisocial activities | Deviant teens report less loneliness than adolescents who are friendless. They make friends with other deviant teens. Kids with conduct problems aren't usually liked by their peers- so they have a small number of friends to choose from |
| Gangs | usually defined by a name, neighborhood boundary, sign (tattoo or hand signal), long history of serious violence (gun violence). (teens who come from worse family backgrounds, low income, drug abuse) |
| Crews | Teens who are involved fighting, partying, but aren't involved in serious crimes, they're just deviant |
| Selection | Selection: teens select others based on initial similarities (This+ socialization is why friends become more alike over time) |
| Socialization | follow teens for 2-3 years, they become even more similar with their friends, they influence each other's behavior and characteristics. This has been found heavily in academic performance. This is also found with drug use and mental health. |
| co-rumination | focusing on negative events, hashing out negative details together. especially amongst adolescent girls, those who are only a little depressed, will become with those like them. Overtime, they become even more depressed. |
| Hostile and coercive parenting style linked to what in adolescent friendships? | aggressive children, who are rejected by others and have limited choices in friends - this stays true into adolescence: they lost the opportunity to male friends with those that are not hostile |
| Parental monitoring | Monitoring who their child spends time with, guiding them to be friends with peers that parents like Really important Excessive monitoring can backfire: too harsh and too controlling leads to teens wanting to do the opposite of what their parents want. |
| Parents’ roles in adolescent friendships? - Attachment with Caregivers | Attachment of child to caregiver lays the foundation for later social and emotional development |
| Attachment theory | how your early bonds with primary caregiver effects future relationships with friends and romantic partners |
| Strange Situation Procedure | to figure out a babies attachment style: Mother+child (2-3 years old) meet stranger, mother leaves child with stranger, stranger leaves and mother returns |
| Secure attachment | These babies will become upset+distressed when mom leaves, they avoid stranger, when mom returns they’re very happy+explore and play with toys again |
| Insecure-Resistant attachment | Will usually be very distressed when mom leaves, avoid stranger, when mom comes back they approach but also push her away and punish her for leaving |
| Insecure-Avoidant attachment | Usually don't show any signs of distress when mom leaves them with the stranger, they keep playing, interact with stranger, when mom comes back during reunion, child doesn't show interest and they totally ignore her |
| Disorganized | Babies who have been abused show: when mom separates they don't have a strategy to regulate, they’re afraid and disoriented, When mom returns they show the same confusion. Romanian children (from the orphanages) usually have this style of attachment. |
| Institutionalized children & their attachment styles | Majority of institutionalized children had insecure and other types of attachment (e.g., disorganized), whereas most never-institutionalized children had secure attachment This is from the romanian orphanage study |
| children with foster care intervention & their attachment styles | About half of the foster care children had secure attachment to their foster caregiver Even those who had a foster mom and were not secure still did better than those who never went into foster care |
| foster care children with insecure attachment and amount of friends | Foster care insecure also had on average 2 friends at 16 y.o. |
| foster care children with secure attachment and amount of friends | Foster care secure had 3 close friends They did better than those who did not have secure attachment in foster care |
| never institutionalized children and amount of friends | Never institutionalized had an average of 4 close friends |
| Importance of Peer Acceptance and Inclusion in Adolescence | Adolescents spend significant amount of time with peers, which is related to their greater motivation to be accepted by peers Being excluded is catastrophic to their daily lives They'd be at school for 9-10 hours a day and no one likes them |
| Adolescence is a period with ____________ to social exclusion | hypersensitivity -Neural sensitivity to social rejection is related to social anxiety and depression -They really care about being accepted, it's only seen in teens, NOT children or young adults |
| Social Exclusion Task: Cyberball | a situation thats related/associated to being excluded by peers ball toss game with other players. toss amongst the 3 of you. For first 5 min: waiting for a turn or passing then exclusion block: watch 2 players pass the ball to each other =excluded. |
| Social Exclusion Task: Cyberball Findings for children | Measured theta power (warmer means more activity) Aged 14-16 adolescent and age 10-12 children Children show more attention through theta power when they get excluded compared to when it's not their turn and when they get the ball |
| Social Exclusion Task: Cyberball Findings for teens | Teens show different patterns. More attention when rejected, but also more attention when it's not their turn. attention to threatening situations (things that could lead to exclusion) worried about being ostracized+excluded by other kids in school, etc |
| Sociometric technique/rating/method | A procedure for determining a child’s (popularity) status in peer group; each child in the group either nominates others whom she or he likes best and least Or asking the peers in the class. This is gold standard, but is the hardest to do. |
| Sociometric technique/rating/method outcomes | This method can predict mental health problems later on if a kid is not liked by others either: popular, average, neglected, controversial, or rejected |
| Sociometric technique/rating/method: "Popular" ratings | liked by many peers and disliked by very few If you ask them if they think they’re popular they say yes |
| Sociometric technique/rating/method: "Average" ratings | have some friends but are not as well liked as popular children |
| Sociometric technique/rating/method: "Neglected" ratings | are often socially isolated and, although they are not necessarily disliked, have few friends. Usually neutral Low visibility: not really seen by others, usually overlooked and forgotten Aware they have fewer friends higher levels of loneliness |
| Sociometric technique/rating/method: "Controversial" ratings | liked by many but also disliked by many similar to the popular kids: they have many close friends, engage in frequent peer activities, and they tend to disclose a lot about themselves If you ask them if they think they’re popular they say yes |
| Sociometric technique/rating/method: "Rejected" ratings | disliked by many peers Similar to neglected, both lower status and both have the worst outcomes actively disliked - while with neglected kids, people are neutral Aware they have fewer friends and are less popular higher levels of loneliness |
| Perceived Popularity/ perceived social acceptance method | give a questionnaire to each kid and they rate themselves. Teens have good concept on where they stand in social hierarchy. Ratings of how well a child is liked by peers, made by teachers, parents, and children related to sociometric techniques |
| Factors that affect peer acceptance | Popularity is related to the child's personality and/or behavioral characteristics: Aggression is one of the biggest factors Usually aggressive children are not well-liked, even in childhood |
| Two types of popular children | Popular-prosocial - friendly toward their peers and well liked Popular-aggressive - athletic, arrogant, and aggressive but at the same time viewed as “cool” and attractive: Think Regina George |
| Two types of rejected children | Aggressive-rejected - not accepted by peers because of their low level of self-control and high level of aggression This group usually does the bullying Nonaggressive-rejected - tend to be anxious, withdrawn, socially unskilled usually get bullied |
| Socially Neglected children | shy, quiet, and less aggressive than other children Are called socially reticent - watch in social company from afar, and hover near but do not engage in interaction with others, remain unoccupied Can also be unsociable or socially uninterested |
| T or F: Physical attractiveness is related to popularity | T |
| Attractiveness “Halo Effect" | attractive people are perceived as higher functioning and socially competent How accurate is this beautiful-is-good stereotype? Really not accurate |
| Social Cognitive Skills and popularity | the social knowledge and skill to ask for information, offer information, or invite other children good understanding of other peoples mental states and more awareness of their emotions and motives Can interpret social cues properly Socially competent |
| Bidirectional relation of deficits in social understanding and peer rejection | Deficits in social understanding can lead to maladaptive behavior, poor interactions, and reduced peer acceptance, However, Peer rejection can lead to deficits in social information processing. Bidirectionally related to each other |
| Bidirectional relation of deficits in social understanding and peer rejection: EXAMPLE | aggressive children: they'll go into a neutral interaction and come out offended at something which leads to them being rejected. Then this changes their view on the social world and they see people rejecting them so they act even more aggressive |
| Social Information Processing Theory | 5 steps in every interaction Encoding Making Attributions Generating Potential Responses Decision Making Enactment |
| Social Information Processing Theory in aggressive children | 5 steps: pay attention to hostile cues attribute hostile intentions generate fewer responses lean toward evaluation of aggressive responses behave aggressively to peer |
| Which of these is not true about adolescent friendships characterized by a reciprocated emotional bond buffer against later adjustment problems like emotional issues last for a long time, through all high school years They are voluntary relationships | They last for a long time, usually through all high school years |
| John shouts in class and makes mean jokes about other students, but he's also a part of the football team and is liked by girls in school. How would you characterize his peer status? Popular Aggressive-rejected Popular-aggressive Neglected | Popular-aggressive |
| Measuring perceptions of popularity is generally useful because these ratings are known to align with popularity status that you'd get from the sociometric method This might also be a short answer question. True false | True |
| Sullivan’s theory of interpersonal development | Emphasized social aspects: different interpersonal needs emerge that lead to feelings of security or anxiety Changing interpersonal needs throughout development: (stage-like) |
| Sullivan’s theory of interpersonal development: Infancy | need for contact with people, need for tenderness from caregiver If you don't have these things its hard to move to the next stage (for all of these stages) |
| Sullivan’s theory of interpersonal development: Early childhood | need for adult participation in child’s play |
| Sullivan’s theory of interpersonal development: Middle childhood | need for peer playmates, acceptance into peer groups |
| Sullivan’s theory of interpersonal development: Preadolescence (8-10 y.o.) | need for intimacy and consensual validation in same-sex chumpships (friendships) |
| Sullivan’s theory of interpersonal development: Adolescence | need for sexual contact, intimacy with partner Highlights the emergence of sexuality during puberty Success of these relationships will be built on the foundation of early relationships |
| Attachment theory | the emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver sets up expectations (or an internal working model) of the interpersonal relationships and attachment styles with others through the lifespan |
| How to measure attachment beyond infancy? (cannot do a strange situation with an adult/adolescent…) | Adult Attachment Interview- procedure for participants to recount their childhood experiences to understand their early attachment experiences and get info on how individual recounts his or her childhood history They look at their style of reporting |
| what is the researcher looking for in adult attachment interviews to figure out the adults attachment style? | The researcher is looking at if the narrative is idealistic (too perfect to be true), dismissive (burying and hiding all the negative stuff), or coherent (secure: they are able to say good and bad things about their mother) |
| How do friendships change in adolescence? | Intimacy and loyalty becomes more important teens have more strict+abstract qualities used to describe a friend: They need intimacy from this person They need loyalty from this person |
| Changes in behaviors in friendships in adolescence | Self disclosure (information about yourself that you tell others) In adolescence self-disclosure is more directed towards friends (increases social support+reduces stress+feelings of validation) |
| descriptive self-disclosure | Descriptive: saying facts about yourself (where you’re born, where you’re from, etc.) |
| evaluative self-disclosure | Evaluative: you telling other people about your personal feelings towards different things/issues (talking about your feelings- if you're in an embarrassing situation, talking about politics, etc) increases as friends become better acquainted |
| Negative consequences of self disclosure | f teens disclose too much evaluative self-disclosure in the beginning of the relationship, it can be very burdensome for the relationship Sometimes kids+adolescents will even tell their friend that they don't like them that much |
| Negative consequences of NOT self disclosing | Adolescents who do not self-disclose may feel lonely, depressed, and confused about how much to reveal/what to say These kids are usually socially anxious and shy Its a social skill to self-disclose properly |
| T or F: Self-disclosure to parents decreases from early to mid adolescence, but increases again into adulthood | True When teens become more secretive to parents they become more self-disclosing to their friends |
| Social stress buffering | Phenomenon in which the presence of a social partner reduces and/or eliminates an acute stress response (usually induced by fear, uncertainty) |
| Are parents effective stress buffers for children and adolescents? | Parents buffered cortisol response to social stress in the children but not in adolescents |
| Why measure cortisol as a sign of stress reactivity? | Cortisol caused by the perception of stress More cortisol related to the fight or flight response Cortisol—end product of the(HPA)-axis, which relies on hormonal signals to regulate your metabolism) Stress activates hypothalamus negative feedback loop |
| Changes in behaviors in friendships: Jealousy | (in girl friendships) jealous of friends relationships with other friends (want friends to be loyal to them) seen in girls: (13-15) Close friends who have intimate and exclusive relationships with each other often become more aggressive with each other |
| Changes in behaviors in friendships: Conflict | Close friendships characterized by high levels of intimacy and less conflict compared to a casual friendship; however, when friends argue, these fights are more emotional (hurt feelings) |
| What leads adolescent friends to fight one another? | Usually has something to do with violating implicit rules of the relationship (person isnt loyal anymore, untrustworthy, not intimate anymore, etc.) |
| Reason for conflict in young vs older adolescent friends | In young adolescence: conflicts usually surround themes of undependability (other person isn't reliable), and no respect, unrealistic expectations) Older: fight less because you have more realistic expectations |
| Prevalence of dating and romantic relationships in adolescence | 44% of older teens report dating experience and some form of romantic relationship Compared to 20% in younger adolescents ages 13-14 Of the ones who have ever dated, 33% reported sexual activity (only 1/3rd) |
| Functions of Dating for teens | Recreational quality (it's fun+entertaining) Source of status (teens who begin dating will be viewed as more popular+socially advanced) Helps build social and sexual identities Fulfills needs for companionship and intimacy |
| Development of dating in early adolescence | usually does not facilitate intimacy engage in superficial dating Even if early+mid adolescents are engaged in sexual contact in their relationship, they still dont let their guards down choose partners on superficial values (looks) |
| Development of dating in late adolescence | By age 16-17 it actually becomes intimate Late adolescents pick partners on deeper values (religion, personality, etc.) |
| Behaviors in the relationship: early adolescents | more negative and controlling than young adults like excessive texting the person, checking on them, asking them to wear certain clothing |
| Behaviors in the relationship: late adolescents | Increasing willingness to analyze and dissolve disagreements into young adulthood They won't just break up with each other over conflict Focus on personality traits in partners |
| Phases of romance | 3 phases 1) Ages 11-13 2) Ages 14-16 3) Ages 17-18 |
| Phases of romance: Ages 11-13 | Interest in socializing with potential romantic interests. Main purpose: to establish or maintain social status Usually relationships don't last more than a couple weeks |
| Phases of romance: Ages 14-16 | Engage in dyadic relationships, casual dating. it becomes a source of passion and preoccupation. not serious, no commitment They're always thinking about the other person and engage emotionally in the relationship last from several weeks to 6 months |
| Phases of romance: Ages 17-18 | concerns w/commitment & tensions b/t needs for intimacy and needs for autonomy. Relationships begin to look like those of young adults. On one hand they want to be intimate, on the other they're juggling lots of responsibilities. Last a year or longer |
| social stress buffering in romantic relationships | partners become prominent, compared to other relationships act as a social stress buffer by late adolescence Supportive partners reduce risk for mental health issues Family and friends are rated as 2nd most important in their lives by young adulthood |
| Transition from elementary to secondary schools (elementary vs middle school (grades 6-8)) | In the U.S. this is a normal transition Some people find it difficult to transition Ages 12-14, so most people are going through puberty (biological, cognitive changes) Also social changes: people want more friends |
| Transition from elementary to secondary schools (elementary vs middle school (grades 6-8)) continued | Drop in students’ achievement motivation Not same as actual performance, might be disheartened by big faster classes Less motivation=less attention & lower performance Social status can change when individuals move with a new social hierarchy |
| T or F: Changing schools is easier for students going into small rather than large schools | True Do better academically (more attention from teachers, more individualized, better quality teaching) and psychologically |
| Factors linked to students’ difficulty in school transitions | Prior academic record Prior psychosocial problems (those without friends do worse) Cascading effects: if you thrive socially in 6th grade, it adds to 7th grade and you thrive more. This also applies to academics. But it goes both ways. |
| Factors linked to students’ success in school transitions | Parents+teachers who are involved+supportive teachers+parents involved: (socially inclusive environment) teens tend to do better Having close friends (before transition) Larger protection effects for those who come from low income backgrounds |
| Schools with tracking structure | the process of separating students into diff. lvls of classes/diff. groupings of ability w/in the same school Sometimes they separate by students who are getting A's Sometimes on IQ scores Academic, Pre-AP and AP classes are sort of like tracking |
| Alternative schooling | catholic schools score higher on standardized test. due to the students’ socioeconomic characteristics (virtually all white+advantaged). But if you compare a public school kid w/same economic status, they are pretty much equal in terms of performance |
| Pros of private schools: | Strong communities, high social capital Better safety, less exposure to gangs, fights between ethnic groups, less substance use Kids report feeling more safe Because they're from richer neighborhoods |
| What is student engagement? | The extent to which students are psychologically committed to learning/mastering the material rather than just completing the assigned work ~ One fifth of students are highly engaged in class ~ one third of students are disengaged |
| Cognitive engagement* | refers to whether students see a reason to learn the material |
| Emotional engagement* | the extent to which the student likes the subject they’re learning |
| Behavioral engagement* | is the student showing behaviors that show engagement, or do they appear inattentive |
| Factors that influence student engagement & success | Teachers who provide opportunities to show their competencies, with material that is challenging, fun and relevant to the real world Makes students more engaged, usually Schools that foster a positive school climate and facilitate a sense of belonging |
| Factors that influence student engagement & success continued | Peer culture—schools with peers who value academic vs those who don’t Parents who value education and are involved |
| Adolescents who work while also in school | Working hours in a part time job can affect school engagement and performance Working lots of hours related to lower school engagement |
| parental involvement program* | intervention was a child-parent center program ages 3-4 Asked the parents to be involved, do volunteer activities in the daycare, go on field trips, know the teachers, know what the kids are doing, etc. Come in at least 1.5 days per week to the daycare |
| parental involvement program* results | Greater likelihood of high school completion and higher educational attainment was explained by parental involvement. Involving the parent, changing the cognition, having better school support can make kids more successful in the long run |
| Experience sampling method | Eliminates recall bias because they won't have to remember all that they did that day, just what they’re doing in the moment you asked them |
| Interval-contingent responding | Survey them several times a day on a fixed schedule, not random |
| Event-contingent responding | Meaning it hinges on an event So if i'm interested in emotions in social interactions, i would tell teens to report their emotions after every social interaction they have |
| Signal-contingent responding | Random prompting to report things |
| Advantages and disadvantages of the experience sampling method? | Advantages: real time reporting, less likely to lie Disadvantages: success of these relies on the teens responding to you, cause they might not respond |
| true of false: Busier adolescents tend to be more successful academically | true Also tend to have better mental health But note correlations are not causation |
| Does work positively influence development? | less affluent adolescents work to support themselves $ to buy luxuries and spend on leisure Learning responsibilities high rates of misconduct at work Could be because most of them are not in leadership roles, so they're not going to learn to lead |
| nature and skills that adolescents use in their job | higher level jobs lead to more critical thinking and leadership Lower level positions don't require critical thinking (like retail positions which are mindless) When mindless jobs take a lot of hours, they cause stress and interfere with school work |
| Consequences of working in adolescence: Associations with academic performance | The # of hours is related to lower grades and greater likelihood of dropping out Working might be good if the hours are manageable. Students who work a greater number of hours might be more psychologically invested in work rather than school |
| Potential explanations for relations in working and school performance in adolescence | Self-selection process. Primary orientation model-adolescents usually focus their attention on either school or work but not both. premature work causes pseudomaturity |
| Does work promote problem behaviors? | yes, people assume that because they're busy+responsible that they’re not going to be delinquent, but that's not true Its actually related to more smoking, etc |
| Summary on adolescent work | To systematically know how adolescents spend their free time naturalistic observation methods like experience sampling can be useful Adolescent parttime & summer jobs have declined in past decades |
| Summary on adolescent work continued | Most adolescent work will not affect their academics and problem behaviors unless they are working too many hours. But most who choose to work many hours might self-select to do so because they might not be interested in school |
| function of adolescent paid work | depends on what the job is and the skills that are required |
| T or F: using smartphones generally enhanced positive moods, rather than reducing positive moods in adolescence | true -Most people improved their moods by using their phones Even adolescence who were depressed report being happier after phone use Limitations: cannot claim a causal effect, study only ran for 1 week |
| Adolescents and Screen Time | 97% of adolescents report using the internet daily More than 90% of adolescents between ages 13-17 use social media The majority (56%) is on it several times a day |
| Age differences in screen time | older ones are more likely to have a phone, girls will report being on social media more often, while boys are usually on video games |
| relations between screen time and internalizing and externalizing problems | Internalized: Anxiety, depression, worry, social withdrawal Externalized: Aggression, delinquency, conduct problems Greater duration of screen time had a small but significant correlation with more externalizing problems and internalizing problems |
| The displacement hypothesis | time spent on technology including social media displaces time that could be spent on other healthy and in-person activities |
| The displacement of time spent on healthy activities lead to negative outcomes: | Reduced or disrupted sleep Reduced physical activity Overweight, higher blood pressure Social isolation, and depression Evidence is more established for physical health outcomes |
| Is there support for a bidirectional model of screen time and disrupted sleep time? | there are reverse effects, in which children and teens who have sleep and regulation problems increase their screen time that creates a cycle in their sleep problems Some individuals use screen time or social media to regulate |
| Bright light hypothesis | physical blue light exposure before bed can interfere with melatonin which makes it harder to fall asleep |
| Arousal hypothesis | engaging with social media use before bed, heightens your cognitive and emotional arousal (maybe you're watching/doing things that trigger you to think more) which makes you less likely to fall asleep compared to watching something neutral |
| Social comparison theory | ppl have innate drive to evaluate themselves in comparison to others, esp. when objective standards are not available Teens are more aware of themselves and are trying to figure out their identity, so social comparison could be more prevalent in teens |
| Cultivation theory** | perspective on media use that highlights potential impact of media exposure on individuals. One way direction: exposure to social media can change teens behaviors (and not the reverse): shapes adolescents’ interests, motives, and beliefs about the world |
| Use and gratification model** | erspective on media use that highlights the active role of users in choosing the media type they are exposed Some teens with some interests/existing characteristics choose the type of media they’re exposed to (reverse of cultivation theory) |
| Media practice model | adolescents not only choose what media content they are exposed to but also interpret the media in ways that shape their impact a bidirectional effect (also the widely accepted theory today) media influences teens, but teens also seek out media |
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jennawilk
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