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AP Vocab 2011
all the most important terms we learned this year
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| 5' cap | a modified form of guanine nucleotide added onto the nucleotide at the 5' end of a pre-mRNA molecule |
| A site | one of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. Holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the polypeptide chain |
| abiotic | nonliving; referring to physical and chemical properties of an environment |
| absorption | the third stage of food processing in animals; the uptake of small nutrient molecules by an organism's body |
| absorption spectrum | the range of pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths of light |
| abyssal zone | the part of the ocean's benthic zone between 2,000 and 6,000 m in depth |
| acclimation | physiological adjustment to a change in an environmental factor |
| acetyl CoA | acetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound of for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme |
| acetylcholine | one of the most common neurotransmitters; functions by binding to receptors and altering the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to specific ions |
| acid | a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution; pH between 0-7 |
| acoelomate | a solid bodied animal lacking a cavity between the gut and outer body wall |
| acquired immunity (adaptive immunity) | vertebrate specific defense that is mediated by B cells and T cells. It exhibits specificity, memory, and self-nonself recognition |
| acromosomal reaction | the discharge of hydrolytic enzymes from the acromosome when the sperm approaches or contacts an egg |
| acromosome | a vesicle in the tip of a sperm containing hydrolytic enzymes and other proteins that help the sperm reach the egg |
| actin | protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle cells |
| action potential | rapid change in the membrane potential of an excitable cell, caused by stimulus-triggered, selective opening and closing of voltage-sensitive gates in sodium and potassium ion channels |
| activation energy | amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start; also called free energy of activation |
| activator | protein that bind to DNA and stimulates gene transcription. In prokaryotes it binds in or near the promoter and in eukaryotes it binds to control elements in enhancers |
| active immunity | long lasting immunity conferred by the action of B cells and T cells and the resulting B and T memory cells specific for a pathogen. Active immunity can develop as a result of natural infection or immunization |
| active site | specific portion of an enzyme that binds the substrate by means of multiple weak interactions and that forms the pocket in which catalysis occurs |
| active transport | movement of a substance across a cell membrane, with the use of energy, against its concentration gradient; mediated by specific transport proteins |
| actual evotranspiration | amount of water transpired by plants and evaporated from a landscape over a given period of time, usually measured in millimeters and estimated for a year |
| adaptation | inherited characteristics of an organism that enhances its survival and reproduction in specific environments |
| adaptive radiation | period of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill vacant ecological roles in their communities |
| adhesion | attraction between different kinds of molecules |
| adipose tissue | connective tissue that insulates the body and serves as a fuel reserve; contains fat-storing cells called adipose cells |
| adrenal gland | endocrine gland located adjacent to the kidneys in mammals. endocrine cells in the cortex secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to nervous inputs triggered by short-term stress |
| adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) | tropic hormone that is produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary an that stimulates the production and secretion of steroid hormones by the adrenal cortex |
| aerobic respiration | catabolic pathway that consumes oxygen and organic molecules, producing ATP. this is the most efficient catabolic pathway and is carried out in most eukaryotic cells and many prokaryotic organisms |
| age structure | relative number of individuals of each age in a population |
| agonistic behavior | an often ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains access to a resource, such as food or mates |
| AIDS | symptoms and signs present during the late stages of HIV infection, defined by a specific reduction in the number of T cells and the appearance of characteristic secondary infections |
| alcohol fermentation | glycolysis followed by the conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol |
| aldosterone | steroid hormone that acts on tubules of the kidney to regulate the transport of sodium ions and potassium ions |
| alimentary canal (digestive tract) | tube running between mouth and anus |
| allantois | on of four extra-embryonic membranes; serves as a repository for the embryo's nitrogenous waste and functions in gas exchange |
| allele | any of the alternative versions of a gene that produce distinguishable phenotypic effects |
| allopatric speciation | formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another |
| allosteric regulation | binding of a regulatory molecule to a protein at one side that affects the function of the protein at a different site |
| alpha helix | spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding |
| alternation of generations | life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte; found in plants and some algae |
| altruism | selflessness; behavior that reduces an individual's fitness while increasing the fitness of another individual |
| alveolate | protist with membrane-bounded sacs (alveoli) located just under the plasma membrane |
| alveolus | one of the air sacs where gas exchange occurs in a mammalian lung |
| Alzheimer's disease | age related dementia characterized by confusion, memory loss, and other symptoms |
| amino acid | an organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. amino acids serve as the monomers of polypeptides |
| amino group | chemical group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms; can act as a base in a solution |
| aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase | an enzyme that joins each amino acid to the appropriate tRNA |
| ammonia | small and very toxic molecule produced by nitrogen fixation or as a metabolic waste product of protein and nucleic acid metabolism |
| amnion | one of four extraembryonic membranes. it surrounds a fluid-filled cavity that cushions the embryo |
| amniote | clade of tetrapods named for a key characteristic, the amniotic egg, that contains specialized membranes including the amnion. amniotes include mammals, birds, and other reptiles |
| amniotic egg | shelled egg in which an embryo develops within a fluid-filled amniotic sac and is nourished by yolk. enables mammals and birds to complete their life cycles on land |
| amoeba | protist grade characterized by the presence of pseudopods |
| amphibian | member of the tetrapod class that includes salamanders, frogs, and caecilians |
| amphiapathic | has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region |
| amplification | strengthening of stimulus energy during transduction |
| amylase | enzyme in saliva that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller polysaccharides and the disaccharide maltose |
| anaerobic respiration | the use of inorganic molecules other than oxygen to accept electrons at the "downhill" end of the electron transport chain |
| analogous | having characteristics that are similar because of convergent evolution NOT homology |
| analogy | similarities between two species that are due to convergent evolution rather than to descent from a common ancestor |
| anaphase | fourth stage of mitosis, chromatids have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell |
| anatomy | structure of an organism and its study |
| androgen | steroid hormone such as testosterone that stimulates the development and maintenance of the male reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics |
| angiosperm | flowering plant, which forms seeds inside a protective chamber called an ovary |
| Animalia | kingdom that consists of multicellular eukaryotes that ingest their food |
| anion | negatively charged ion |
| anterior | the front or head of a bilaterally symmetrical animal |
| anterior pituitary | consists of endocrine cells that synthesize and secrete several tropic and nontropic hormones |
| anther | in an angiosperm, the terminal pollen sac of a stamen, where pollen grains containing sperm-producing gametophytes form |
| antheridium | the male gametangium, a moist chamber where gametes develop |
| anthropoid | member of a primate group made up of the monkeys and apes; includes gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans |
| antibody | protein secreted by plasma cells that binds to a particular antigen; all antibodies have the same Y shape |
| anticodon | nucleotide triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on a mRNA molecule |
| antidiuretic hormone (ADH) | peptide hormone that promotes water retention by the kidneys. produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary |
| antigen | macromolecule that elicits an immune response by binding to receptors of B cells or T cells |
| antigen presentation | when an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of a protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface and displays it for recognition by a T cell |
| antigen receptor | surface protein that binds to antigens, initiating acquired immune responses |
| antiparallel | opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix |
| aphotic zone | part of an ocean or lake beneath the photic zone, where light doesn't penetrate enough for photosynthesis to occur |
| apical bud | bud at the tip of a plant stem; also called a terminal bud |
| apical dominance | concentration of growth at the tip of a plant shoot, where a terminal bud partially inhibits axillary bud growth |
| apical ectodermal ridge (AER) | thickened area of ectoderm at the tip of a limb bud that promotes outgrowth of the limb bud |
| apical meristem | embryonic plant tissue in the tips of roots and the buds of shoots that enable the plant to grow in length |
| apoplast | the continuum o cell walls plus the extracellular spaces |
| apoptosis | program of controlled cell suicide which is brought about by signals that trigger the activation of a cascade of suicide proteins in the cell destined to die |
| aposematic coloration | bright coloration of animals with effective physical or chemical defenses that acts as a warning to predators |
| appendix | small finger-like extension of the cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity |
| aqueous humor | plasma-like liquid in the space between the lens and the cornea in the eye; helps maintain shape of the eye and supplies nutrients and oxygen to its tissues |
| aqueous solution | solution in which water is the solvent |
| Archaea | one of two prokaryotic domains, the other being bacteria |
| archegonium | the female gametangium in plants |
| archenteron | endoderm lined cavity formed during gastrulation that develops into the digestive tract of an animal |
| arteriole | vessel that conveys blood between an artery and a capillary bed |
| artery | carries blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body |
| arthropod | segmented organism with a hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages, includes crabs, insects, spiders, and millipedes |
| artificial selection | selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals to encourage the occurrence of desirable traits |
| asexual reproduction | generation of offspring from a single parent that occurs without the fusion of gametes, in most cases the offspring is identical to the parent |
| associative learning | acquired ability to associate one environmental feature such as color with another such as danger |
| astrocyte | glial cell with diverse functions, including providing structural support for neurons, fascilitating synaptic transmission, and assisting in regulating the blood supply to the brain |
| atom | smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element |
| atomic mass | total mass of an atom, which is the mass in grams of 1 mole of the atom |
| atomic nucleus | an atom's dense central core that contains the protons and neutrons |
| atomic number | number of protons in the nucleus of the atom, unique to each element |
| ATP | energy that is used to drive endergonic reactions in a cell |
| ATP synthase | several membrane proteins that provides a port through which proteins diffuse. functions in chemiosmosis with electron transport chains to make ATP. found in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and plama membrane of prokaryotes |
| AV node | region of heart muscle that is the pacemaker of the heart, delays electrical impulses |
| AV valve | valve located between each atrium and ventricle that prevents backflow of blood when the ventricle contracts |
| atrium | chamber of the heart that recieves blood from the veins and transfers blood to a ventricle |
| autoimmune disease | immunological disorder in which the immune system turns against itself |
| autonomic nervous system | efferent branch of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the internal environment; consists of sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions |
| autosome | chromosome that is not directly involved in determining sex; not a sex chromosome |
| autotroph | organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms; use energy from the sun or from oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules |
| auxin | primarily refers to indoleacetic acid (IAA0, a natural plant hormone, that has a variety of effects including cell elongation, root formation, secondary growth, and root growth |
| axillary bud | structure that has the potential to form a lateral shoot or branch |
| axon | process of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body towards the cells |
| axon hillock | region of a neuron's axon where it joins the cell body; typically the region where nerve impulses are generated |
| B cell receptor | antigen receptor on B cells |
| B cells | lymphocytes that complete their development in the bone marrow and become effector cells for the humoral immune response |
| Bacteria | one of two prokaryotic domains, the other being Archaea |
| bacteriophage | a virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage |
| balancing selection | natural selection that maintains two or more phenotypic forms in a population |
| bark | all tissues external to the vascular cambium |
| basal metabolic rate (BMR) | the metabolic rate of a resting, fasting,and non-stressed endotherm at a comfortable temperature |
| base | a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concetration of a solution |
| base pair substitution | type of point mutation that replaces one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of nucleotides |
| Batesian mimicry | type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a species that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators |
| behavior | action carried out by muscles or glands under control of the nervous system |
| behavioral ecology | the study of evolution of and ecological basis for animal behavior |
| benign tumor | mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of its origin |
| benthic zone | bottom surface of an aquatic environment |
| big-bang reproduction (semelparity) | reproduction in which an organism produces all of its offspring in a single event |
| bilateral symmetry | body symmetry with a central longitudinal plane that divides the body into two equal halves |
| bile | mixture produced in the liver and is stored in the gall bladder, aids in the digestion and absorption of fats |
| binary fission | asexual reproduction meaning "division in half" |
| biodiversity hot spot | relatively small area where endangered and threatened species live |
| bioenergetics | overall flow and transformation of of energy in an organism |
| biofilm | surface coating colony of prokaryotes that engage in metabolic cooperation |
| biogeochemical cycle | any of the chemical cycles that involves both biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem |
| biological clock | internal timekeeper that controls an organism's biological rythms |
| biology | scientific study of life |
| biome | any of the world's major ecosystems, classified according to vegetation and the adaptions of organisms that live there |
| biosphere | entire portion of Earth inhabited by life |
| biotic | pertaining to the living organisms in the environment |
| bipolar cell | neuron that relays information between photoreceptors and ganglion cells in the retina |
| blastocyst | blastula stage of mammalian development |
| blastula | hollow ball of cells that marks the end of the cleavage stage of of an early embryo |
| blood | connective tissue that contains: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets |
| blood-brain barrier | specialized capillary arrangement in the brain that filters what can and can not enter the brain |
| body cavity | fluid or air filled space between the digestive tract and the body wall |
| body plan | set of morphological and developmental traits that are integrated into the living animal |
| bolus | lubricated ball of chewed food |
| bone | connective tissue consisting of living cells held together by a rigid matrix of collagen fibers embedded in calcium salts |
| bottle neck effect | genetic drift that occurs when the size of a population is reduced by a natural disaster or human actions |
| brain | organ of the central nervous system that processes and integrates all the information in the body |
| brainstem | collection of structures in the brain including the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata; controls functions like homeostasis and movement coordination |
| bronchiole | fine branch of the bronchi that transports air to alveoli |
| bronchus | a pair of breathing tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs |
| budding | asexual reproduction where outward growths from the parent are pinched off to live independently |
| buffer | substance that consists of acid and base forms in a solution that minimizes pH changes |
| bulk feeder | an animal that eats relatively large pieces of food |
| C4 plant | plant in which the calvin cycle is preceded by reactions that incorporate CO2 into a four-carbon compound |
| calcitonin | hormone that lowers blood calcium levels by promoting calcium deposition in bone |
| Calvin Cycle | second of two major stages in photosynthesis, involves fixation of C02 and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate |
| CAM plant | plant that closes its stomata during the day and opens them at night |
| Cambrian explosion | geological time period when large hard-bodied animals that are known today first appeared in the fossil record |
| canopy | uppermost layer of vegetation in a terrestrial zone |
| capillary | tiny blood vessel that penetrates tissues and allows the exchange between blood and interstitial fluid |
| capsid | protein shell that encloses a viral genome |
| carbohydrate | a sugar of monosaccharide, disacchharide, or poylsaccharide form |
| carbon fixation | incorporation of carbon from C02 to an organic compound |
| cardiac cycle | alternating contractions and relaxations of the heart |
| cardiac muscle | type of muscle that forms the walls of the heart, cells are joined by disks that relay each heartbeat |
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