Chapter 1, 2, 3, 5
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| mind | thoughts & feelings
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| brain | nervous system & anything associated with it
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| behavior | actions
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| Why is it hard to study psychology? | people change, are different, & experience things differently (variability)
mind prone to error & illusion
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| What serves as the stable factor when studying psychology? | mind & brain are tuned to the world
modest degree of prediction (causal events)
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| psychology is a product of __________ & __________ | philosophy & physiology
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| Why is psychology considered a science? | it measures & predicts thoughts, behaviors, & brain processes
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| animism | there is a life-giving spirit for anything that lives/moves
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| dualism | mind & body separate
mind can't be studied scientifically
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| psychology | study of mind, brain, behavior, & their interactions
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| modified dualism (Descartes) | some behavior controlled by body & doesn't need a soul
soul thinks & is uniquely human
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| What part of the brain did Descartes believe allow the mind to interact with the body? | pineal gland (good position & looked like a mini brain)
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| materialism (Mill & Hobbes) | mind product of the brain (no soul)
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| empiricism (Locke) | knowledge acquired through sensory experiences
opposed nativism
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| natural selection (Darwin) | behavior influences how characteristics evolve
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| different scientists who tried to understand brain & nervous system (7) | Galvani - frog muscles & electricity
Muller - nerve energies differ
Flourens - ablation of brain
Broca - "Tan" & language centers
Fritsch, Hitzig, Penfield - sensory/motor cortices
Helmholtz - stimulus & reaction time
Weber - sensory magnitudes
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| Who founded psychology? When? Where? | Wundt; 1879; laboratory in Livitz, Germany
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| structuralism (Titchener @ Cornell) | components of thought (parts make whole) & introspection (looking at oneself) - not replicable/consistent
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| functionalism (James @ Harvard) | focused on roles of thought & behavior (reasoning) & how they adapt
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| psychoanalysis (Freud & Jung) | a lot happened in the unconscious
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| Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer, Kohler, Lewin) | whole is different from the sum of its parts
context & expectations influence what you see
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| behaviorism (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner) | focused on observables & not mind
fails to take mental processes & evolutionary history into account
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| What are the 2 categories in psychological disciplines/areas? | applied & research
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| What are the steps of the scientific method? | 1. identify problem/theory
2. derive hypotheses
3. design experiment to collect data
4. analyze data to potentially modify theory/hypothesis (cannot prove, but can disprove)
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| hypothesis | educated guess, falsifiable ideas in should/shouldn't format
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| theory | explanation of how things work
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| experiment | controlled situation to manipulate variables & measure their effects
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| phrenology | specific mental abilities associated with parts of brain
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| hysteria | loss of cognitive/motor functions temporarily
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| humanistic psychology | approach to understanding humans with emphasis on positive potential
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| cognitive psychology | study of mental processes
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| behavioral neuroscience | links psychological processes to nervous system
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| cognitive neuroscience | understand links b/w cognitive processes & brain activity
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| evolutionary psychology | mind & behavior adaptive & preserved by natural selection
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| social psychology | causes/consequences of human interaction
presence of people has an effect
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| cultural psychology | how cultures reflect & shape psychological processes
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| absolutism | culture has little influence on psychology
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| relativism | phenomena vary & should be viewed in context of specific culture
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| What are the 3 experimental variables? | independent variables (manipulated)
dependent variables (measured)
control variable (constant)
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| What do experiments help us understand? | cause & effect
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| correlational studies | no manipulation
helps to see relationships
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| case studies | idiosyncratic - specific to an individual
insightful, but not generalizable
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| observational studies | no experiments
recording activities over time
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| 2 important components to research | counterbalancing - balance out costs to remove variability & see only your effects
random assignment
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| expectancy factors | unconscious expectations from researchers can influence outcome
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| demand characteristics | if they know about the study, participants can act a certain way
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| single-blind studies | participants don't know, but researcher does
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| double-blind studies | neither participant nor researcher knows
removes bias
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| experiments/studies should have _______ & ________ | replicability & generalizability
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| generalizability | replicable in other labs & with a wider audience
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| Mozart effect | people who listen to Mozart score better on intelligence tests
NOT replicable
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| What needs to be done in order to make research ethically right? | informed consent - sign a form
debriefing - tell them everything after
confidentiality
IRB (institutional review board) - approves studies
value - cost/benefit ratio
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| rules of conducting a study | -no needless harm
-help others
-no coercion
-deception needs a good reason
-protect powerless & vulnerabl (minors, handicapped, prisoners)
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| validity | how well is what you're trying to study measured (most are invalid)
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| types of validity | internal - with respect to study
external - outside of study
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| reliability | replicability
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| inter-rater reliability | consensus that exists in a method/tool
used with studies using subjective judgements
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| normal data distribution curve | bell curve with concentration near middle
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| descriptive statistics | describes data & distribution
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| inferential statistics | evaluate hypotheses using probability
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| types of descriptive statistics | central tendency & variability
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| types of central tendency | mean (arithmetic average)
median (middle score)
mode (most popular response)
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| When do you want to use the median value? | extreme values
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| bimodal data | when there are 2 extremes & very little people are in the middle
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| types of variability | range & standard deviation
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| types of data plots | scatterplots (correlations)
bar charts (categorical)
line charts (continuous data over time)
pie charts (distribution)
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| What do error bars show us on line charts? | reliable differences
same bar caused by random variation
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| Type I error | p < 0.05
when 2 things seem different from each other, but they're not
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| Type II error | 2 things don't seem different, but they are
fixed by power increase
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| rule of parsimony | start w/ simplest theory
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| parts of Belmont Report | respect for persons
beneficience (max benefits & min risks)
justice (benefits & risks distributed equally)
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| third variable correlation | 2 variables correlated only because each is causally related to third variable
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| matched samples technique | participants identical in terms of third variable
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| matched pairs technique | participant identical to one other in terms of a third variable
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| parts of a neuron | soma, nucleus, axon, dendrites, myelin sheath, nodes of ravier
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| axon | where info goes out
has neurotransmitters on the end
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| dendrites | where info comes in
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| myelin sheath | facilitates & increases speed of info transfer
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| nodes of ranvier | gaps in between axons
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| types of myelin | white matter - myelinated neurons (white = fat)
gray matter - unmyelinated
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| 3 types of neurons | afferent (sensory) - periphery to CNS
efferent (motor) - CNS to periphery
interneurons - shuffling info to help mind think
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| glial cells | helps maintains neurons
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| How do glial cells support neurons? | -provide nutrients
-clean up waste
-hold neurons in place
-insulate neurons
-remove dead neurons
-create myelin
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| neural transmission | neural impulse --> synapse
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| What's the resting potential of a neuron? | -77 mV
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| What happens to the electrical charge of a neuron during the action potential? | gets more positive
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| neural firing | all or none - either they fire or they don't
randomly fires
more impulse = more firing
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| 2 important components of neural coding | rate & pattern of neural firing
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| What two ions play a role in neural firing? | potassium and sodium
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| What is the charge inside the channel during the resting period? | negative
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| What happens during depolarization? | Na ions flow in
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| What happens during repolarization? | K ions flow out & Na gates close
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| What happens during hyperpolarization/refractory period? | K gates close
pump moves Na ions out & K ions in
no action potential can be initiated
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| What happens in between synapses? | -lock & key system
-binding site on post-synaptic neuron for vesicles
-neurotransmitters are released
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| What are the two types of neurons involved in neural firing? | excitatory (depolarization)
inhibitory (hyperpolarization)
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| glutamate | -excitatory
-binds to NMDA & AMPA receptors
-deactivated by alcohol
-sensory neurons involved with learning
-precursor for GABA
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| GABA | -inhibitory
-anxiety regulation & learning
-stimulated by alcohol, barbituates, benzodiazapine
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| neuromodulators | accentuate/diminish neurotransmitters
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| two types of neuromodulators | agonist & antagonist
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| endorphins | -inhibitory
-opiods (pain regulation)
-blocked by Naloxone
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| cannabinoids | repress neurotransmitter release
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| what can happen to the vesicles after neurotransmitters are released? | reuptake with autoreceptors
enzymatic deactivation/neutralization
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| Prozac | -re-uptake blocker of serotonin
-agonist
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| how does learning occur? | altered connections at dendrites
pruning - taking out bad/not needed connections
plasticity - modification
neurogenesis
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| two parts of the nervous system | peripheral & CNS
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| two parts of the PNS | autonomic (4F's) & somatic (voluntary)
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| two parts of the autonomic nervous system | sympathetic (dynamic) & parasympathetic (relaxed)
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| two parts of CNS | brain & spinal cord
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| three parts of the brain | forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
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| how is the CNS protected? | surrounded by cerebral spinal fluid made by ventricles, meninges, blood-brain barrier
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| how does the brain get its nutrients from the bloodstream? | glial cells
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| what is the spinal cord responsible for? | mediates brain & PNS, reflexes
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| list 3 parts of brain from oldest to newest | hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
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| 2 parts of hindbrain/brain stem | myelencephalon, metencephalon
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| 2 parts of myelencephalon | medulla (attached to spinal cord)
reticular formation (arousal, circadian rhythm, heartbeat, blood circulation, respiration)
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| 3 parts of metencephalon | pons (sensory info, respiration)
cerebellum (fine motor control, coordination, balance)
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| 2 parts of midbrain/mesencephalon | tegementum (reticular activating system..arousal & sleep-waking, movement)
tectum (superior colliculus/unconscious vision, inferior colliculus/unconscious hearing, orientation)
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| what is the mesencephalon responsible for? | motor & metabolic processes
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| what are 3 neurological imaging measures? | post-mortem activation
CT scans (X-ray)
MRI (H2O molecules resonate, clearer)
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| what are 4 electrical measures? | single cell recording
EEG (ERP event related potentials)
MEF
TMS (stimulate & give lesion)
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| compare two types of neurological imaging | structural imaging allows you to see density of brain & functional imaging allows you to see brain activity
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| 3 types of functional imaging/blood flow measures | PET (radioisotopes in blood)
fMRI (oxygen molecules examined)
NIRS (refraction patterns on scalp)
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| why is looking at brain damage not very informative? | usually more than one part is affected
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| 2 parts of forebrain | diencephalon & telencephalon
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| 2 parts of diencephalon | thalamus (relay center, receive/integrate sensory info)
hypothalamus (control center, homeostasis, pleasure center)
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| 4 parts of telencephalon | basal ganglia (striatum, large conscious muscle movement, motor learning)
hippocampus (temporary memory creation & integration, conscious learning)
amygdala (emotional processes, sense of smell tying experiences together, fear)
cerebral cortex
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| 3 parts of limbic system | hippocampus, amygdala, basal ganglia
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| phrenology | -study of the mind
-bumps & depressions on skull represent different functions
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| 4 lobes of the cortex | occipital (visual)
parietal (spatial & sensory)
temporal (auditory & memory)
frontal (thought & action)
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| how many lobes do you have total? | 8 (4 in each hemisphere)
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| Phineas Gage | damaged frontal lobe led to different emotions & behavior
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| somatosensory cortex (front of parietal lobe) | parts dedicated with respect to how sensitive they are
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| primary motor cortex (back of frontal lobe) | parts dedicated with respect to how much you need to control it
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| mirror neurons (near motor/sensory homunculi) | -active when watching others do things/you do things
-origin of empathy
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| example of mirror neurons in action | TV, sports (stimulating own experiences)
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| example of how primary motor cortex is associated with paralysis | strokes, phantom limbs
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| 2 types of language areas | Broca's (language production)
Wernicke's (language comprehension)
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| Broca's aphasia | can't speak well, little syntax, can't write, CAN understand, laborious speaking
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| Wernicke's aphasia | trouble understanding others & themselves, talk a lot
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| lateralization of hemispheres | contralateral except for sense of smell
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| what is the left hemisphere better at (3) | right of body, language, analytic thinking
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| what is the right hemisphere better at (2) | spatial processing
holistic processing
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| how do hemispheres exchange information | commisures -> corpus callosum
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| how does contralateralization work with the visual field? | project to opposite hemispheres & respective side of the eye
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| what happens during the resting period of neural firing? | K ions flow in and out
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| order of stages of neural firing | depolarization until max potential is reached
repolarization
hyperpolarization
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| salitory conduction | speed flow of info down axon by jumping from node to node
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| acetylcholine | -inhibitory & excitatory
-involuntary motor control
-activates muscles
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| lack of acetylcholine | Alzheimer's
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| dopamine | -inhibitory & excitatory
-regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, emotions
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| lack of dopamine | Parkinson's
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| abundance of dopamine | schizophrenia
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| norepinephrine | -excitatory
-mood & arousal
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| serotonin | -inhibitory
-regulation of sleep, eating, aggression
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| L-dopa & MPTP | agonist & antagonist for dopamine
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| amphetamine | -agonist
-stimulates release of norepinephrine & dopamine
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| propranalol | -antagonist
-blocks norepinephrine
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| pituitary gland | hormone-producing system
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