December exam review
Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in
each of the black spaces below before clicking
on it to display the answer.
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| Psychology | The study of behaviour and mental processes (in humans and animals)
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| Methods of psychology | descriptive and experimental
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| Descriptive methods | systematic observation= Field (naturalistic) observation, surveys, and "clinical" methods [**cannot explain anything, only describe]
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| Clinical Methods | Interviews & rating scales (past psychological state), Tests (present), and longitudinal case study (future)
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| Tests | subjective and objective
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| Experimental drawbacks | artificiality, interference, inappropriateness, and errors in interpretation
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| Experimental Method | systematic intervention= location, variables, characteristics:control and replication, and drawbacks
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| Contaminating factors | age, motivation, intellectual, education, sex
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| 7 types of senses | hearing, seeing, smelling (olfactory), taste (gustatory), skin, balance, kinaesthetic
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| Defining the term operationally | define it in terms of the operations necessary to measure it
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| demand characteristics | experimenters may, inadvertently communicate their hypothesis to the subject
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| expectation effects | gave an example of how women who were and weren't given liquor and how the non-liquor drinkers got very drunk and the opposite didn't
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| placebo effect | nothing other than the expectation that it will work does it actually
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| control group | group with the least done to it
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| stimulant | the "thing"
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| placebo | doesn't have the "thing"
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| replication | repeating a study in identical fashion
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| variables | something that can vary, condition or factor that is set or manipulated, a factor or conditions that can change in value or degree (ex. age, height, weight, etc.)
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| independent variable | changes are independent of what the subject does
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| dependent variable | changes are dependent on changes in the independent variable (reaction of the participants, what is being studied)
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| perceptual organization | we can distinguish ground from figures because they have a boundary to them, the ground is usually shapeless
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| gestalts | the ability to unlearn and organize incoming sensations into patterns
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| principles of figure-ground | principle of contour, principle of grouping, principle of closure, and principle of apparent movement
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| illusions | can occur from conflicting information
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| Stage 1 sleep | 25%
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| Stage 2 sleep | 50% (know the least about)
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| stage 3 sleep | 5% (deepest sleep)
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| stage 4 sleep | 20% (deepest sleep) recuperative sleep and if awoken there will be a spastic movement, and confusion/disorientation
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| REM sleep | "paradoxical sleep" b/c you seem to be awake physiologically, when behaviourally you seem more asleep physiologically, hard to awaken people in this stage, a new section of REM sleep every 90 mins, happens after non-rem sleep, loss of muscle tone
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| medulla oblongata | the part of the brain responsible for the loss of muscle tone while sleeping
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| Why we dream | 1)Lobbson- objectively are randomly made but as humans we cannot accept this so we create a meaning
2)dreams as thinking (connected to current concerns in ones life)
3)dreams as efforts to deal with problems
4)Freud- unconcious wishes
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| DAMIT | dreams of absent minded transgression (ex. alcoholic who quit cold turkey may experience a dream about having a drink)
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| Hippocrates on dreams | represent desires free from the interference of the reality of the waking state
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| REM rebound | deprived of the opportunity to sleep so when they get the chance they do/catch up if given as much time as they want (up to 40% more time in REM sleep)
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| nightmare | night devil in German, pressing devil in French, stage 1 awakening
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| night terror | there is breathing difficulty, and is a stage 4 awakening
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| Methods of threshold determination | psychophysical & signal detection
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| Psychophysical Method | method of constant stimuli, method of limits, and method of average error
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| psychophysics | the study of the sensory consequences of controlled physical stimulation
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| absolute threshold | the smallest quantity of physical energy that can be reliably detected by an observer (not a constant value that changes from person-to-person and situation-to-situation)
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| difference threshold | the smallest difference in stimulation that can be reliably detected by an observer when two stimuli are compared (JND-just noticeable difference)
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| Weber's law | for every stimulus intensity, there is some constant % that must be added or subtracted for a difference in intensity to be detected
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| signal detection | 1) capacity/efficiency
2) stimulus intensity
3) motivation
4) expectation
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| perceptual constancy | the accurate perception of objects as stable or unchanged despite changes in the sensory patterns they produce (what makes our world perceptually stable)
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| learning | is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or change in behaviour potential
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| association | we learn to connect memory things which occur together in our experience, such that if we think of/remember one thing, we tend to think of/remember the other
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| Classical conditioning | BEOFRE:includes a unconditioned stimulus which causes an unconditioned response DURING:the unconditioned stimulus is paired with a conditioning response which causes the unconditioned response AFTER:the conditioned stimulus causes a conditioned response
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| classical conditioning can cause... | phobias
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| stimulus generalization | objects which are similar to the conditioned stimulus may cause the same reaction (conditioned response) as the conditioned stimulus (ex. baby Albert becoming scared of furry things not just rats)
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| higher-order conditioning | present with the original stimulus and are nothing like the stimulus but an association is created (ex. Skinner: drinking wine to open envelopes -> then drinking wine and seeing husband)
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| extinction | the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus (if experience is very traumatic extinction may never occur)
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| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction
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| counter conditioning | a series of small incremental steps where a positive stimulation is paired lightly with the feared and over time the feared becomes positive or associated with positive
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| Operant (instrumental) conditioning | a response that is followed by satisfaction to the organism will be likely to recur; responses followed by neutral or unsatisfying consequences will be less likely to recur than classically cond. responses
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| operant responses are.. | 1) complex
2) usually under the learners control
3) more useful than classical conditioning
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| Thorndike's law of affect | If you do something and you like the result you'll do it again. If you do something and you don't like the result you probably won't do it again
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| punishment is intended to... | decrease behaviour
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| positive reinforcement | a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the PRESENTATION of, or INCREASE in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur (
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| positive AND negative punishment both lead to.. | a decreased probability of responding
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| negative reinforcement | a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the REMOVAL, DELAY, or DECREASE in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur
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| skinner box | a manipulandom- something the animal can tap or push to receive the reinforcement, which also had an electric grid floor to shock for misbehaving
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| schedules of reinforcement can be.. | continuous & partial (intermittent)
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| Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules are.. | ratio & interval
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| 2 kinds of ratios are.. | fixed ratio and variable ratio
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| 2 kinds of intervals are.. | fixed interval and variable interval
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| fixed ratio | occurs after a fixed number of behaviours (there is a post-reinforcement pause)
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| variable ratio | occurs on average after "x" number of responses occur (there is no post-reinforcement pause)
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| reinforcement is and must.. | the process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows & must occur in a timely fashion or association may not be made
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| 2 types of amnesia (forgetting) | antrograde & retrograde
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| antrograde | can only remember AFTER a certain point in time (usually due to a physical condition ex. head injury or old age)
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| two types of retrograde forgetting.. | psychogenic & repression
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| repression | motivated or selected forgetting (Freud believed in this, an it is controversial)
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| memory trace decay | some memories simply diaper over time if they are not used (cannot say this for all memories)
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| distortion | sometimes what looks to be forgetting may be that it was learned incorrectly to begin with (faulty original learning)
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| Two types of transfers.. | positive & negative
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| retroactive interference | forgetting previously learned material because of recently learned material - remembering of A is interfered with by more retaining of B (learn A, learn B, try to remember A)
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| Proactive interference (negative transfer) | forgetting recently learned material because of previously learned material - remembering of B is interfered with by older memory of A (learn A, learn B, try to remember B)
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| stimulus discrimination | the tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to evoke the CR
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| positive & negative punishment both lead to.. | an decreased probability of responding
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| amnesia | the partial or complete loss of memory for important personal information
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