Chapters 1, 2, and 3
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| What did Milgram’s obedience study show about the power of the situation? | People and situations have the power to influence our behavior like the men who continued to inflict someone pain on the “student”.
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| What are channel factors (aka "nudges")? | It helps explain why certain circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface can have great consequences for behavior, either facilitating in or blocking
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| how do automatic and controlled tasks differ? | Automatic tasks can be controlled with little to no attention while controlled tasks requires more attention (requires more cognitive resources)
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| what are the advantages of the automatic system? | Can react without thinking, it is generally fast and based on instinct, and it does not require conscious processes.
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| how can tasks change from controlled to automatic? | Repeated practice can make some controlled task automatic like walking, talking, writing, driving, speech patterns. Tasks behavior becomes predictable.
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| what is construal? | One’s interpretation of or inference about the stimuli or situation that one confronts.
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| how is construal related to experience? | Experience allows us to make inferences about familiar stimuli.
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| how is construal related to the use of schemas and stereotypes? | Schemas helps us to understand how to react in certain situations and stereotypes helps rule out any other possibilities of what we assume. It can be accessed automatically.
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| role of cultural norms... | influence the way we construe situations. Social norms
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| how is culture related to construal? | It influences the way we construe situations
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| Humans are cognitive misers—what does this mean? | We look for the easiest way to process information. Our cognitive resources are limited which means we resist “spending” them.
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| What is meant by “human universal”? | That Human behaviors and instincts are universal.
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| . Do humans share any traits with other primates? | Yes! Both express dominance and submission, anger and fear, through similar facial expressions.
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| What are some important universals? | 1. we live in groups
2. we develop language
3. we develop gender roles
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| Why are social neuroscientists so interested in the prefrontal cortex? | The prefrontal cortex is involved in decision making and where we process complex thoughts and emotions. It provided a window into development of social behavior by tracing physical changes in the brain.
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| Why do we say humans are cultural animals, not just social animals? | We can adapt anywhere and therefore we can choose whether or not we cooperate with each other.
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| What are social norms? | Rules and standards understood by members of a group.
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| how do independent and interdependent societies differ in their emphasis on the individual vs. the group? | Impendent tend to be more inward focused and emphasizes on the personal uniqueness individual identity while interdependent societies tends to be more outward focused and they define themselves to be part of a collective or group.
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| how do they differ in the importance of personal uniqueness? | Independent is autonomous so personal uniqueness is expected as it is a big part in independent societies. Interdependent societies are all about connection so personal uniqueness will focus more on adapting to relationships, social roles, and groups.
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| What are the goals of science? | To describe, make predictions, and explain.
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| Why can’t we rely on our personal observations to provide explanations? | Because of our personal observations may be inaccurate to what may take place.
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| How are hypotheses involved in the research process? | They are predictions about what will happen under particular circumstances
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| How are theories related to hypotheses? | They are the predictions that can be measured with support of empirical data.
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| What does the survey method involve? | People asking question that involves in interviews and written questions.
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| How do random sampling and convenience sampling differ? | Random selection captures the proportions of given types of people in the population as a whole while convenience sampling can produce proportions that are severely skewed away from the actual population as a whole.
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| How do positive, negative, and zero correlations differ? | Positive moves in the same direction, negative moves in opposite directions, and zero means there’s no relationship at all.
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| What does the correlation coefficient tell us? | The statistical measure of degree of relationship between 2 variables.
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| What would a perfect correlation look like? | +1 and -1
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| What kind of conclusion can we draw from correlational research? | It involves measuring two or more variables and assessing whether there is a relationship between them.
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| Does correlation let us determine cause and effect? Why (or why not)? | No. Correlation does not mean causation because there is always a possibility that there is a third variable present that may affect the DV.
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| What 3 conditions must be met for a study to be considered a valid experiment? | There must be a manipulation of the IV and measure effect DV, control over experimental situations, and random assignment of subjects to groups.
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| What is the main advantage of experimental studies? | Used to establish cause and effect.
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| what are extraneous variables? | Other variables that may influence the DV
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| what is the difference between confounding and noise? | Confounding varies systematically and affects one group more that the other. Noise is randomly distributed across groups and affects both groups equally.
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| What does it mean if a result (e.g., a correlation, a difference between means) is statistically significant? | A mean of the probability that a given result could have occurred by chance.
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| What is a main effect? | Effect of a single IV
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| What is an interaction effect? | Combined effect of two IV’s
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| how do internal validity and external validity differ? | External validity shows how well the results of a study generalize to contexts outside the conditions of the lab. Internal validity shows confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results.
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| did subjects perceive the manipulation as intended? (what is a manipulation check?) | Manipulation check is the measure of success of IV manipulation.
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| are there demand characteristics? (what are they?) | Demand characteristics are features of the experiment that give clues about hypothesis.
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| is there experimenter bias? (how would we reduce it?) | can be reduced by doing blind experiments.
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| Reliability – what is it? | The degree to which the particular way researchers measure a given variable is likely to yield consistent results.
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| Replication – what is it? | Reproduction of research results by the original investigator or by someone else. Do other studies get similar results? There to improve the test.
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| what is the job of the IRB? | A committee that examines research proposals and makes judgements about the ethical appropriateness of the research.
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| what is the purpose of informed consent? | A participant signed agreement to participate in a procedure or a research study after learning all of its relevant aspects.
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| What is self-concept? | The sum total of beliefs we have about ourselves: mildly accurate; to see yourself with 100% accuracy is depression
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| The sum total of beliefs we have about ourselves: mildly accurate; to see yourself with 100% accuracy is depression | It is not innate because Gallup’s mirror study shows that the animals and people only responded to the mark on their head if they had gone through the study a couple of times. Only 25% of babies should self-recognition.
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| can the self-concept change over time? (i.e., is it stable or malleable?) | Self-concept is both stable and malleable because it is multi-dimensional
Ex: language around older relatives
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| common components of self-concept (from "list 3 things" class exercise) | a) social roles= 13%
b) traits/characteristics= 9%
c) demographic characteristics= 12%
d) activities and interests= 61%
e) future goals= 3%
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| is the self-concept always accurate? | The self-concept is mildly accurate because humans tend to want to stay positive and self-enhance themselves. The only time it is 100% accurate is during depression.
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| Sources of Self-Knowledge and Self-Evaluation | Observation – of own behavior and of thoughts and feelings
• Observing one’s own behavior (self-perception)
• Looking at others vs. Oneself
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| Reflected appraisal – what is it? why is it often inaccurate? | Reflected appraisal refers to the processes by which people's self-views are influenced by their perceptions of how others view them.
• In children it is often inaccurate
• Social comparison
• A “big way” to evaluate how one is doing
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| when are we likely to do social comparison? | • Under conditions of uncertainty
• When there is no objective standards
• When beliefs about self are challenged
• When self-esteem has suffered
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| upward social comparison | looking at someone and comparing to someone of a higher/better skilled dimension
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| downward social comparison | looking at someone and comparing to someone worse off than one (a lower dimension)
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| lateral social comparison | someone similar to you on that dimension—shooting for people in your own age range
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| motives for comparison (what type of comparison other would be chosen? what would be the "direction" of comparison?) | a. accurate self-assessment: lateral social comparison
b. goal setting: upward social comparison
c. self-enhancement (will it always make you feel better?): downward social comparison
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| what are the characteristics of independent self construal? | • Inwardly focused
• Autonomous: working independently
• Self-concept focuses on traits, abilities and attitudes internally
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| what are the characteristics of interdependent self construal? | • Outwardly focused
• Focused
• Connections that tend to be an implication of others
• Self-concept: emphasizes relationships, social roles and groups
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| how do independent and interdependent self construal affect the way we pay attention to social contexts? | It affects the way we pay attention to social contexts because we may have socioeconomic status’ and ethnic and racial groups that influence our own independence or interdependence.
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| how does gender influence self-construal? | Gender roles influence the beliefs about appropriate behavior for the two genders. Socialization magnifies the importance and influence of gender roles.
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| what are some reasons for these differences in gender influence? | differential treatment from birth highlights gender roles and how they often become part of self-concept.
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| self-handicapping | behavior that can excuse a poor performance or a failure.
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| self-affirmations | focuses on people's efforts to maintain on overall sense of self -worth when confronted with feedback or events that threaten a valued self-image.
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| what is self-monitoring? | ensures that a person's behavior fits the demands of the social context
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| what is self-presentation? | related to the public self. people present themselves the way they want others to see them
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| Positive distortion often associated with high self-esteem | -believe they're above average in positive traits
-inflated sense of control
-unrealistic optimism
- self-serving bias
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| When is it likely to develop? Unstable high self esteem | -given unconditional positive feedback (ability and notion that they did well has NO standards
-always protected from failure (mar doubt their ability to cope)
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| Sources of self-knowledge and evaluation | -observing one's own behavior (self-perception)
-Looking at others vs. oneself
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| self-schemas | organizing structures that help guide the construal of social information, represent a person's beliefs and feelings about the self, both in general and in specific situations
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| self verification | the theory that people sometimes strive for stable, subjectively accurate beliefs about themselves because such self views give them a sense of coherence and predictability
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